Biblical Question and Answer Feb 16 2006.
Q: What’s up with all those different names assigned to the patriarchs and other biblical figures?
A: There are some serious problems with the traditional understanding of name-switching.
Let’s take Jacob, for example. The conventional understanding is that he was first named Jacob and after his struggle with an angel was renamed Israel. There are several problems with this. First, the text does not exclusively call him Israel after this event, as is the case with Abraham vs. Abram and Sarah vs. Sarai. Second, the origin of the name Israel is obviously mythological. An angel in human form do not exist in reality. Third, even if angels in human form do exist --or if assume that he struggled with an ordinary person-- how could they "change" a person’s name. If that is the name he is known by amongst his tribe, family and friends, then why and how could it be changed? If this particular patriarch was known as "Jacob" for most of his lifetime, then there’s no need to change this name. Finally, even if such a change could be effected and it did in fact occur, why does the biblical author bother with it. Why not call him "Jacob" all the time since that was his primary name or "Israel" all the time since that was his revised and ultimate name?
This is why I believe that name variations in the bible are attributable to variations in biblical documentary sources. In the case of Jacob/Israel I am very much convinced that this is the case, since the name is so different and because the new name is not applied consistently. Furthermore, I believe that these names do not refer to the same historical person. Thus, there was a "patriarch" to the northern Israelite tribes (headed by Ephraim) by the name of Israel and there was a Judahite patriarch known as Jacob. The priestly author or some other redactor (perhaps the JE redactor) had to reconcile these two divergent traditions and accomplished this through a "name change".
Q: What is so unique about the tribe of Joseph?
A: The tribe of Joseph is subdivided between Ephraim and Manasseh. According to the Genesis account (Genesis 48) Manasseh is the older one and is therefore entitled to the birthright (double portion of the inheritance) and a special blessing, much like that Isaac should have given to his eldest son Esau and ended up giving to Jacob after he fooled him. In the case of Ephraim and Manasseh, however, Jacob himself initiated the switch placing Ephraim before Manasseh because Ephraim’s future is destined to be bigger than Manasseh’s and his seed will "fill the nations".
But there’s something even more important in Jacob’s blessing to Joseph’s sons as recorded in the E document (Genesis 48:8-22). Jacob is saying to Joseph: The angel who redeemed me from all evil shall bless the lads and he shall call in them my name and the name of my fathers Abraham and Isaac and they shall flourish like fish in the midst of the land. "call in them my name" means that they and only they represent the lineage of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob and can be called Jacobites/Israelites. All other sons of Jacob will have to be subordinate to Ephraim and Manasseh and will not be the primary representatives of the Israelite family.
This is remarkable! Jacob is taking his youngest son and he is not only giving him the birthright by splitting Joseph into two tribes thus giving him a double portion, but he is also pretending that Ephraim and Manasseh are his direct sons and constitute the primary inheritors of his name.
We believe that most if not all stories in the Bible should be interpreted as myth and their sole purpose is to explain the origin and background to the realities of life experienced by the biblical author. Accordingly, this E story of Ephraim and Manasseh was developed during the divided kingdom in an attempt to explain the realities of contemporary political life.
* Manasseh is said to be the eldest son because in the formative years of Israel’s existence Manasseh played a pivotal role in the affairs of the loose Israelite tribal federation. Gide’on the son of Yoash and Jair the Gile’adite and Jephtach the Gile’adite were from the tribe of Manasseh. In the case of Gide’on Ben Yoash, he says to the angel (Judges 6:15) "My family is the poorest in Manasseh". Gide’on Ben Yoash heeded to the angel’s voice and lead Israel against the Amalzkites and Midianites. In the case of Jair the Gile’adite (Judges 10:3), he is said to have judged Israel 22 years and fathered thirty sons who in turn founded thirty cities which were called "Havothjair" in Gile’ad. Finally, there was Jephtach the Gile’adite who was at first despised by his people but was later appointed chief in order to defend the Gileadites against the Amonites (Judges 11).
Gile’ad is synonymous with Manasseh. We see this in several places:
Jair the son of Manasseh from Gile’ad founded "Havothjair". In judges 10 it doesn’t say that Jair was from Manasseh but this is stated in Deuteronomy 3:14.
In Joshua 17 it states that Makir the firstborn of Manasseh was the father of Gile’ad. He was "a man of war and so he had Gile’ad and Bashan" (Joshua 17:1).
* Ephraim is said to be the younger son of Joseph because Ephraim’s power emerged in later years. After the united kingdom was established by Saul and then continued by David and Solomon, Jeroboam Ben Nebat from Ephraim was the first Israelite king to break away from the southern Davidic kingdom and establish his own, more prosperous kingdom. Ever since then, "Ephraim" became synonymous with "Israel".
* Jacob is depicted as placing the younger and weaker Ephraim before Manasseh because the weaker Ephraim eventually becomes the stronger of the two. The weakness of Ephraim compared to Manasseh in the days of the judges is illustrated by the story in Judges (12:1-6) wherein the Manassites pursue the Ephraimites, conquer the passages of the Jordan and slay any Ephraimite attempting to escape. 42,000 Ephraimites are said to have died in this battle. By contrast, in the days of the monarchy, not only was Ephraim the royal tribe (as pointed out earlier that Jeroboam was an Ephraimite), but Manasseh didn’t seem to play any significant role in the monarchy. Like the other tribes who settled east of the Jordan (Reuben and Gad), it seems that they gradually assimilated into the neighboring nations of Amon, Moab and Edom. At the time of the monarchy, no mention is ever made in the book of kings or chronicles that any Israelite tribes lived east of the Jordan and inhabited such huge tracts of land as the Bashan and Gile’ad.
* Joshua, the servant of Moses is an Ephraimite in the E tradition. He followed Moses’ leadership of the Israelites into Canaan.
Are the biblical stories about Joseph true?
As I pointed out earlier, we believe that biblical stories of Israel’s ancestral past are reconstructed based on current realities. In the case of Joseph, consider the following parallels between the story of Joseph and later Israelite history.
* According to J, Le’ah had four sons (Genesis 29:31-35) Reuben, Simeon, Levi and Judah. Note that these tribes later (after 922 BCE) constituted the Southern "Davidic" Kingdom. Judah was the core of the Davidic kingdom, Levi provided the priesthood for the Jerusalem temple, Simeon first inherited land bordering the "Negev" in southern Judah. During monarchic times, however, Simeon had become assimilated into Judah. Reuben never inhabited any land west of the Jordan but they did live close to Judah east of the Jordan at one point in early history. By monarchic times we no longer hear from Reuben; it seems that they had assimilated into Moab or Edom. If they assimilated into Edom then Judah actually ruled Reubenites while they ruled Edom (until the days of Jehoshaphat) and Reubenites thus constituted part of the southern kingdom. At any rate, Reuben is certainly not associated with the northern kingdom like all other tribes are. They lived quite far from the northwestern territory of Israel and were never ruled by Jeroboam or subsequent Israelite dynasties.
* According to E, Rachel was the matriarch of the three tribes that later constituted the core of the northern kingdom: Ephraim, Manasseh and Benjamin. Banjamin lies to the immediate north of Judah, then comes Ephraim and then Manasseh. Manasseh’s northern border was Beth she’an and the valley of Jezreel.
To the north of Manasseh we have Issachar and Zebulon and then Dan and Naphtali to the far north. These four tribes were not always part of Israel; much of the land in their territory was never completely under tribal control. Even at monarchic times, their land was not always under the monarchy’s rule, especially the northernmost territories. Asher was part of the Phoenician coast and Gad occupied land east of the Jordan.
A clear picture of projected patriarchal affiliations based on later history now emerges. Rachel is the mother of the northern kingdom and Leah is the mother of the southern kingdom (Issachar and Zebulun are attributed to Le’ah by the E writer; they are NOT Leah’s sons in the J document). The E story, written in the north, portrays the six Le’ah brothers representing the southern tribes as antagonistic to the Rachel brothers representing the northern tribes and in the process created the story that even though Reuben and Judah were the older sons of Jacob (reflecting Judahite seniority during the united monarchy), they were not the most beloved of his sons. In fact, E claims that Israel loved Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) more than any of his other sons. The six Leah brothers envied him for this and ganged up to do something about it. The Le’ah brothers’ subjugation and humiliation of Joseph reprsents Solomon’s and Rehoboam’s heavy taxation and exploitation of the north. Solomon divided his kingdom into twelve districts and each district had to furnish provisions to the king on a different month; they also had to provide manpower to the Judahite king ("Mas obed"). The Le’ah borthers are going to find pasture in Shechem and then in Dothan, both of which are in Manasseh territory. This further illustrates how the south is attempting to unrightfully exploit the north.
Consequently, the northern tribes are forced to secede and form their own kingdom. Rehoboam declares war on the house of Israel and gathers 180 thousand soldiers to fight the Israelites (1kings 12:21). This is represented by the E expression: "they could not talk in peace with him" (Genesis 37:4), which means that it was the Le’ah brothers who initiated the schism. According to E, Jacob sends Joseph to Shechem to ensure the peace of his brothers and the peace of the sheep. This represents Israel’s willingness to make peace even under the heavy taxation by Judah but Judah is not willing to compromise and alleviate some of the taxation. It comes to a point where continued taxation by Judah is seen by E as synonymous with Israel’s annihilation and E therefore represents this event with the Le’ah brothers’ attempt to kill Joseph.
Reuben comes to the rescue and suggests that Joseph be lowered into a pit that does not contain water (so that he does not drown and die immediately) so that he dies of starvation and thirst and not in their hands. Reuben’s real plan is to eventually "rescue" Joseph and return him to his father but when he returns after having eaten a meal with his brothers elsewhere, it is found that Joseph is no longer there. He had been pulled out by Midianites and is on his way to Egypt.
In J’s version of this episode, it is Judah who comes to Joseph’s rescue but Judah only intends to save Joseph’s life, not to return him to his father. Judah suggests that Joseph be sold to Ismaelite merchants traveling from Gile’ad towards Egypt.
What accounts for the JE variation between Judah and Reuben?
In E, Reuben --as the eldest son of Israel-- is seen as the most important of the Le’ah brothers. Of course, Joseph is even more important even though he is the youngest but Joseph does not belong to the Le’ah family. Therefore, whenever E is about to describe a responsible role, it naturally confers that role upon the eldest Le’ah son, Reuben. E assumes this approach when it comes to the identitiy of Joseph’s savior and the one pledging to return Benjamin to his father.
J has a different approach. In J, Reuben is not important; the tribe of Reuben does not worship in the Jerusalem temple and has no cultural affiliation with Judah. Reuben, the eponymous forefather, has "lost" his birthright, as Jacob says in the Blessing of Jacob "You shall not excel!" (Genesis 49:4). In J, Judah has taken over as the most preeminent tribal patriarch among the Le’ah brothers and the roles played by Reuben in E are therefore played by Judah in J. In addition, J adds the role of Judah of pleading with Joseph to return Benjamin after he is arrested for stealing the silver cup. Moreover, the insistence that Reuben was the one objecting to the conspiracy to slay Joseph is a grave insult to the tribe of Judah as it implies that their eponymous ancestor stood there quietly as the eponymous ancestor of Joseph, the core of Israel, was about to be irreversably annihilated. Naturally, therefore, J’s version of the episode insisted that it was Judah who intervened on Joseph’s behalf.
Why are Dan and Naphtali viewed as sons of Rachel’s concubine, Bilhah while Gad and Asher are viewed as sons of Leah’s concubine?
Dan and Naphtali are naturally considered allies of the northern kingdom. However, as pointed out earlier, the Israelite grip over their territory was not that firm. Besides, these tribes were not considered as "elite" as the Ephraim and Manasseh tribes who constituted the core of Israel. Accordingly, they are represented as allied with the Rachel tribes but not related closely enough to belong to Israel proper.
Asher inhabited the phoenician coast which was never directly controlled by the northern kingdom. Likewise, Gad settled to the east of the Jordan in Amorite territoy (Sihon, king of the Amorites) and were never ruled or affiliated with the northern kingdom. What remains unclear, though, is how they came to be associated with the Le’ah tribes. It is possible that since Solomon maintained extremely good relations with the Phoenician kingdom of Tyre, Asher came to be viewed as part of that alliance. Gad, was also seen as seen as subordinate to the southern kingdom since the south presumably led some military campaigns in that area at some point in time. Gad and Asher thus came to be seen as vassals of Judah (in addition to their presumed ethnic ties) and were therefore depicted as descendant from a Le’ah concubine.
E source
J source
יח וַיִּרְאוּ אֹתוֹ מֵֽרָחֹק וּבְטֶרֶם יִקְרַב אֲלֵיהֶם וַיִּתְנַכְּלוּ אֹתוֹ לַֽהֲמִיתֽוֹ: כא וַיִּשְׁמַע רְאוּבֵן וַיַּצִּלֵהוּ מִיָּדָם וַיֹּאמֶר לֹא נַכֶּנּוּ נָֽפֶשׁ: כב וַיֹּאמֶר אֲלֵהֶם רְאוּבֵן אַל־תִּשְׁפְּכוּ־דָם הַשְׁלִיכוּ אֹתוֹ אֶל־הַבּוֹר הַזֶּה אֲשֶׁר בַּמִּדְבָּר וְיָד אַל־תִּשְׁלְחוּ־בוֹ לְמַעַן הַצִּיל אֹתוֹ מִיָּדָם לַֽהֲשִׁיבוֹ אֶל־אָבִֽיו: כד וַיִּקָּחֻהוּ וַיַּשְׁלִכוּ אֹתוֹ הַבֹּרָה וְהַבּוֹר רֵק אֵין בּוֹ מָֽיִם: כה וַיֵּֽשְׁבוּ לֶֽאֱכָל־לֶחֶם: כח וַיַּֽעַבְרוּ אֲנָשִׁים מִדְיָנִים סֹֽחֲרִים וַֽיִּמְשְׁכוּ וַיַּֽעֲלוּ אֶת־יוֹסֵף מִן־הַבּוֹר: כט וַיָּשָׁב רְאוּבֵן אֶל־הַבּוֹר וְהִנֵּה אֵין־יוֹסֵף בַּבּוֹר וַיִּקְרַע אֶת־בְּגָדָֽיו: ל וַיָּשָׁב אֶל־אֶחָיו וַיֹּאמַר הַיֶּלֶד אֵינֶנּוּ וַֽאֲנִי אָנָה אֲנִי־בָֽא: לו וְהַמְּדָנִים מָֽכְרוּ אֹתוֹ אֶל־מִצְרָיִם לְפֽוֹטִיפַר סְרִיס פַּרְעֹה שַׂר הַטַּבָּחִֽים:
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יט וַיֹּֽאמְרוּ אִישׁ אֶל־אָחִיו הִנֵּה בַּעַל הַֽחֲלֹמוֹת הַלָּזֶה בָּֽא: כ וְעַתָּה לְכוּ וְנַֽהַרְגֵהוּ וְנַשְׁלִכֵהוּ בְּאַחַד הַבֹּרוֹת וְאָמַרְנוּ חַיָּה רָעָה אֲכָלָתְהוּ וְנִרְאֶה מַה־יִּֽהְיוּ חֲלֹֽמֹתָֽיו: [שלישי] כג וַיְהִי כַּֽאֲשֶׁר־בָּא יוֹסֵף אֶל־אֶחָיו וַיַּפְשִׁיטוּ אֶת־יוֹסֵף אֶת־כֻּתָּנְתּוֹ אֶת־כְּתֹנֶת הַפַּסִּים אֲשֶׁר עָלָֽיו: כד וַיִּשְׂאוּ עֵֽינֵיהֶם וַיִּרְאוּ וְהִנֵּה אֹֽרְחַת יִשְׁמְעֵאלִים בָּאָה מִגִּלְעָד וּגְמַלֵּיהֶם נֹֽשְׂאִים נְכֹאת וּצְרִי וָלֹט הֽוֹלְכִים לְהוֹרִיד מִצְרָֽיְמָה: כו וַיֹּאמֶר יְהוּדָה אֶל־אֶחָיו מַה־בֶּצַע כִּי נַֽהֲרֹג אֶת־אָחִינוּ וְכִסִּינוּ אֶת־דָּמֽוֹ: כז לְכוּ וְנִמְכְּרֶנּוּ לַיִּשְׁמְעֵאלִים וְיָדֵנוּ אַל־תְּהִי־בוֹ כִּֽי־אָחִינוּ בְשָׂרֵנוּ הוּא וַֽיִּשְׁמְעוּ אֶחָֽיו: כח וַיִּמְכְּרוּ אֶת־יוֹסֵף לַיִּשְׁמְעֵאלִים בְּעֶשְׂרִים כָּסֶף וַיָּבִיאוּ אֶת־יוֹסֵף מִצְרָֽיְמָה: לא וַיִּקְחוּ אֶת־כְּתֹנֶת יוֹסֵף וַֽיִּשְׁחֲטוּ שְׂעִיר עִזִּים וַיִּטְבְּלוּ אֶת־הַכֻּתֹּנֶת בַּדָּֽם: לב וַֽיְשַׁלְּחוּ אֶת־כְּתֹנֶת הַפַּסִּים וַיָּבִיאוּ אֶל־אֲבִיהֶם וַיֹּֽאמְרוּ זֹאת מָצָאנוּ הַכֶּר־נָא הַכְּתֹנֶת בִּנְךָ הִוא אִם־לֹֽא: לג וַיַּכִּירָהּ וַיֹּאמֶר כְּתֹנֶת בְּנִי חַיָּה רָעָה אֲכָלָתְהוּ טָרֹף טֹרַף יוֹסֵֽף: לד וַיִּקְרַע יַֽעֲקֹב שִׂמְלֹתָיו וַיָּשֶׂם שַׂק בְּמָתְנָיו וַיִּתְאַבֵּל עַל־בְּנוֹ יָמִים רַבִּֽים: לה וַיָּקֻמוּ כָל־בָּנָיו וְכָל־בְּנֹתָיו לְנַֽחֲמוֹ וַיְמָאֵן לְהִתְנַחֵם וַיֹּאמֶר כִּֽי־אֵרֵד אֶל־בְּנִי אָבֵל שְׁאֹלָה וַיֵּבְךְּ אֹתוֹ אָבִֽיו:
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לז וַיֹּאמֶר רְאוּבֵן אֶל־אָבִיו לֵאמֹר אֶת־שְׁנֵי בָנַי תָּמִית אִם־לֹא אֲבִיאֶנּוּ אֵלֶיךָ תְּנָה אֹתוֹ עַל־יָדִי וַֽאֲנִי אֲשִׁיבֶנּוּ אֵלֶֽיךָ: לח וַיֹּאמֶר לֹֽא־יֵרֵד בְּנִי עִמָּכֶם כִּֽי־אָחִיו מֵת וְהוּא לְבַדּוֹ נִשְׁאָר וּקְרָאָהוּ אָסוֹן בַּדֶּרֶךְ אֲשֶׁר תֵּֽלְכוּ־בָהּ וְהֽוֹרַדְתֶּם אֶת־שֵֽׂיבָתִי בְּיָגוֹן שְׁאֽוֹלָה:
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ח וַיֹּאמֶר יְהוּדָה אֶל־יִשְׂרָאֵל אָבִיו שִׁלְחָה הַנַּעַר אִתִּי וְנָקוּמָה וְנֵלֵכָה וְנִֽחְיֶה וְלֹא נָמוּת גַּם־אֲנַחְנוּ גַם־אַתָּה גַּם־טַפֵּֽנוּ: ט אָֽנֹכִי אֶֽעֶרְבֶנּוּ מִיָּדִי תְּבַקְשֶׁנּוּ אִם־לֹא הֲבִֽיאֹתִיו אֵלֶיךָ וְהִצַּגְתִּיו לְפָנֶיךָ וְחָטָאתִי לְךָ כָּל־הַיָּמִֽים: י כִּי לוּלֵא הִתְמַהְמָהְנוּ כִּֽי־עַתָּה שַׁבְנוּ זֶה פַֽעֲמָֽיִם: יא וַיֹּאמֶר אֲלֵהֶם יִשְׂרָאֵל אֲבִיהֶם אִם־כֵּן אֵפוֹא זֹאת עֲשׂוּ קְחוּ מִזִּמְרַת הָאָרֶץ בִּכְלֵיכֶם וְהוֹרִידוּ לָאִישׁ מִנְחָה מְעַט צֳרִי וּמְעַט דְּבַשׁ נְכֹאת וָלֹט בָּטְנִים וּשְׁקֵדִֽים: יב וְכֶסֶף מִשְׁנֶה קְחוּ בְיֶדְכֶם וְאֶת־הַכֶּסֶף הַמּוּשַׁב בְּפִי אַמְתְּחֹֽתֵיכֶם תָּשִׁיבוּ בְיֶדְכֶם אוּלַי מִשְׁגֶּה הֽוּא: יג וְאֶת־אֲחִיכֶם קָחוּ וְקוּמוּ שׁוּבוּ אֶל־הָאִֽישׁ: יד וְאֵל שַׁדַּי יִתֵּן לָכֶם רַֽחֲמִים לִפְנֵי הָאִישׁ וְשִׁלַּח לָכֶם אֶת־אֲחִיכֶם אַחֵר וְאֶת־בִּנְיָמִין וַֽאֲנִי כַּֽאֲשֶׁר שָׁכֹלְתִּי שָׁכָֽלְתִּי:
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כב וַיַּעַן רְאוּבֵן אֹתָם לֵאמֹר הֲלוֹא אָמַרְתִּי אֲלֵיכֶם לֵאמֹר אַל־תֶּֽחֶטְאוּ בַיֶּלֶד וְלֹא שְׁמַעְתֶּם וְגַם־דָּמוֹ הִנֵּה נִדְרָֽשׁ: ------------------------------------------
יד וַיָּבֹא יְהוּדָה וְאֶחָיו בֵּיתָה יוֹסֵף וְהוּא עוֹדֶנּוּ שָׁם וַיִּפְּלוּ לְפָנָיו אָֽרְצָה: טו וַיֹּאמֶר לָהֶם יוֹסֵף מָֽה־הַמַּֽעֲשֶׂה הַזֶּה אֲשֶׁר עֲשִׂיתֶם הֲלוֹא יְדַעְתֶּם כִּֽי־נַחֵשׁ יְנַחֵשׁ אִישׁ אֲשֶׁר כָּמֹֽנִי: טז וַיֹּאמֶר יְהוּדָה מַה־נֹּאמַר לַֽאדֹנִי מַה־נְּדַבֵּר וּמַה־נִּצְטַדָּק הָֽאֱלֹהִים מָצָא אֶת־עֲוֹן עֲבָדֶיךָ הִנֶּנּוּ עֲבָדִים לַֽאדֹנִי גַּם־אֲנַחְנוּ גַּם אֲשֶׁר־נִמְצָא הַגָּבִיעַ בְּיָדֽוֹ: יז וַיֹּאמֶר חָלִילָה לִּי מֵֽעֲשׂוֹת זֹאת הָאִישׁ אֲשֶׁר נִמְצָא הַגָּבִיעַ בְּיָדוֹ הוּא יִֽהְיֶה־לִּי עָבֶד וְאַתֶּם עֲלוּ לְשָׁלוֹם אֶל־אֲבִיכֶֽם: ס ס ס [פרשת ויגש] יח וַיִּגַּשׁ אֵלָיו יְהוּדָה וַיֹּאמֶר בִּי אֲדֹנִי יְדַבֶּר־נָא עַבְדְּךָ דָבָר בְּאָזְנֵי אֲדֹנִי וְאַל־יִחַר אַפְּךָ בְּעַבְדֶּךָ כִּי כָמוֹךָ כְּפַרְעֹֽה: יט אֲדֹנִי שָׁאַל אֶת־עֲבָדָיו לֵאמֹר הֲיֵשׁ־לָכֶם אָב אוֹ־אָֽח: כ וַנֹּאמֶר אֶל־אֲדֹנִי יֶשׁ־לָנוּ אָב זָקֵן וְיֶלֶד זְקֻנִים קָטָן וְאָחִיו מֵת וַיִּוָּתֵר הוּא לְבַדּוֹ לְאִמּוֹ וְאָבִיו אֲהֵבֽוֹ: כא וַתֹּאמֶר אֶל־עֲבָדֶיךָ הֽוֹרִדֻהוּ אֵלָי וְאָשִׂימָה עֵינִי עָלָֽיו: כב וַנֹּאמֶר אֶל־אֲדֹנִי לֹֽא־יוּכַל הַנַּעַר לַֽעֲזֹב אֶת־אָבִיו וְעָזַב אֶת־אָבִיו וָמֵֽת: כג וַתֹּאמֶר אֶל־עֲבָדֶיךָ אִם־לֹא יֵרֵד אֲחִיכֶם הַקָּטֹן אִתְּכֶם לֹא תֹֽסִפוּן לִרְאוֹת פָּנָֽי: כד וַֽיְהִי כִּי עָלִינוּ אֶֽל־עַבְדְּךָ אָבִי וַנַּגֶּד־לוֹ אֵת דִּבְרֵי אֲדֹנִֽי: כה וַיֹּאמֶר אָבִינוּ שֻׁבוּ שִׁבְרוּ־לָנוּ מְעַט־אֹֽכֶל: כו וַנֹּאמֶר לֹא נוּכַל לָרֶדֶת אִם־יֵשׁ אָחִינוּ הַקָּטֹן אִתָּנוּ וְיָרַדְנוּ כִּי־לֹא נוּכַל לִרְאוֹת פְּנֵי הָאִישׁ וְאָחִינוּ הַקָּטֹן אֵינֶנּוּ אִתָּֽנוּ: כז וַיֹּאמֶר עַבְדְּךָ אָבִי אֵלֵינוּ אַתֶּם יְדַעְתֶּם כִּי שְׁנַיִם יָֽלְדָה־לִּי אִשְׁתִּֽי: כח וַיֵּצֵא הָֽאֶחָד מֵֽאִתִּי וָֽאֹמַר אַךְ טָרֹף טֹרָף וְלֹא רְאִיתִיו עַד־הֵֽנָּה: כט וּלְקַחְתֶּם גַּם־אֶת־זֶה מֵעִם פָּנַי וְקָרָהוּ אָסוֹן וְהֽוֹרַדְתֶּם אֶת־שֵֽׂיבָתִי בְּרָעָה שְׁאֹֽלָה: ל וְעַתָּה כְּבֹאִי אֶל־עַבְדְּךָ אָבִי וְהַנַּעַר אֵינֶנּוּ אִתָּנוּ וְנַפְשׁוֹ קְשׁוּרָה בְנַפְשֽׁוֹ: [שני] לא וְהָיָה כִּרְאוֹתוֹ כִּי־אֵין הַנַּעַר וָמֵת וְהוֹרִידוּ עֲבָדֶיךָ אֶת־שֵׂיבַת עַבְדְּךָ אָבִינוּ בְּיָגוֹן שְׁאֹֽלָה: לב כִּי עַבְדְּךָ עָרַב אֶת־הַנַּעַר מֵעִם אָבִי לֵאמֹר אִם־לֹא אֲבִיאֶנּוּ אֵלֶיךָ וְחָטָאתִי לְאָבִי כָּל־הַיָּמִֽים: לג וְעַתָּה יֵֽשֶׁב־נָא עַבְדְּךָ תַּחַת הַנַּעַר עֶבֶד לַֽאדֹנִי וְהַנַּעַר יַעַל עִם־אֶחָֽיו: לד כִּי־אֵיךְ אֶֽעֱלֶה אֶל־אָבִי וְהַנַּעַר אֵינֶנּוּ אִתִּי פֶּן אֶרְאֶה בָרָע אֲשֶׁר יִמְצָא אֶת־אָבִֽי:
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Monday, February 20, 2006
Wednesday, February 08, 2006
Ancient Hebrew Questions and Answers
Q: which document was authored first between P and D?
A: clearly P and D are distinct documents. Upon critical analysis, one notices differences in language as well as theology. D emphasizes centrality of worship and talks about the "levite priests". D is not concerned with exact dates and numbers or the details of priests and sacrifices like P is. It is almost impossible to believe that they are contemporary documents.
Take, for example the festival of "shavuoth". According to P we must count seven weeks from the morrow of the Sabbath and then bring a new grain offering to God. According to D we count seven weeks from the time that the sickle is first applied to the standing grain. These two counting systems are not compatible and it is therefore very unlikely that both documents
existed simultaneously.
Thus, the only question remains which one was authored first and in what generation they did apply. After extensive research and careful deliberation, I have come to the conclusion that the traditional belief that D was a product of the Josiah days is correct. But I have also found that P is a product of the post-exilic period. As said earlier, it could not have been authored in the waning days of the first temple because that was the D period. It doesn't seem to have been authored during the exile because it is too much concerned with practices that were not executable during the exile. I understand that the exiled people of Judaea undoubtedly had a great concern for preserving their laws traditions and the P document could theoretically be part of that effort. But I see in P more than mere preservation of tradition. The P author was very creative; he attempted to create new formulas of worship and clarify ritual ambiguities. Such an effort seems to be related to actual worship, not just to preserve the memories of bygone days. The laws of the Leviticus are nowhere to be found in the D document, and so P would not be inventing these laws unless it could be applied in real life and that is post-exilic.
What remains a bit more difficult to prove is that P is not a product of the pre-Josiah days, perhaps the days of his grand-grandfather Hezekiah who is also known to have been a yawhist. Against this possibility, you should take note of the following:
* P is an extremely extensive code. It covers virtually everything contained in the ancient JE documents, most of the material covered by D and a host of new priestly material not found in any other document. If these codes already existed in the Deutoronomistic days, they should have been at least partially incorporated in D. For example, the different ways of performing the sacrificial rites for the "Olah", "Shelamim" and "Asham" are elaborated in detail in Leviticus but not mentioned at all in deuteronomy.
* Before Hezekiah's days the yahweh cult barely existed. Sacrifices in the temple were not practiced routinely or regulated. People typically brought their sacrifices to "high places" located in the countryside and dedicated to other gods. In Hezekiah's days, all the high places were abolished and only yahweh was to be worshipped but those revolutionary changes never took root for his son manasseh reversed all of his father's reforms. Thus, it is questionable whether the yahweh priests in Hezekiah's days had enough popular support to produce the kind of work contained in P.
* P mentions the holiday of Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashana, not mentioned in D and not mentioned anywhere else in the bible. There is no evidence that these holidays were ever practiced during the first temple. In fact even the holiday of Pesach and Sukkoth were only practiced during the reign of yahwist kings such as Hezekiah and Josiah.
* The language and mood of P is that of a later stage in the religious development of the ancient Judaeans. The terms of Qahal (congregation), Qodesh vs chalal (holy vs profane), ghedah (assembly/testament), zakar and neqebah (male and female), are all widespread in P but not commonly present in any other documents.
* The book recording the works of the priest Ezekial who lived during the exile shares many common characteristics with the P document. Thus it is believed that he belonged to the school that authored the P document. BTW, Jeremiah, on the other hand, contains many similarities to the D document, thus confirming that D was authored in his days.
Is the tabernacle (mishkan) of the exodus myth or fact?
The way it is described in P is -no doubt- fiction. For one, since the details of the exodus tabernacle or even its very existence is not present in any other document, how could the P author possibly know so many details about it seven centuries later (or more)? Secondly, in P the tabernacle and the tent of meeting (Ohel Moed) are the same but there is no hint in E that the tent of meeting was anything other than a simple tent where Moses convened with god. There is no mention that the ark of the covenant was housed there or that there was any sort of altar located within it (the incense altar) or about it (the olah altar). These are very important details and could not have been accidentally missed by the E author. In this case, I must conclude that E's silence about the function of the tent of meeting as a place of worship as described in P, is evidence that the tent of meeting did not serve that function according to E.
Regardless, the details of the Tabernacle such as that it was made of logs of cedarwood inserted vertically into bases (aden) and covered by multiple textile covers, are fictitious. These details were made up by the P author in an attempt to vivify and idealize the tabernacle. Just like the third temple envisioned by Ezekial never came to pass and all its details were meant to idealize a future perfect temple, so is P's depiction of the Exodus tabernacle an attempt to envision an ideal tabernacle of the past. Note that it was essential for P to depict the orthodox yahweh lifestyle as having originated in the days of Moses. P could not claim that there was a temple in the wilderness, for a temple is a permanent dwelling built in stone and that could not have existed in Moses' days. Instead, P took the Shiloh tabernacle, idealized it and placed it in the wilderness with Moses, merging it with the tent of meeting. Another example where we can see P making up a story in order to legitimize its new program is the story of the Yom Kippur sacrifice in the wilderness as told in Leviticus 16. It is designed to pin the origin of this newly invented holiday to Moses and thus establish its legitimacy.
In my opinion, there definitely is a possibility that the ancient Israelites roamed the wilderness with some sort of mobile shrine. We have no reason to doubt that the Shiloh tabernacle existed in the days of Eli and Samuel 150 years after the exodus and so it is very possible that some sort of tabernacle existed before the Israelites settled in Canaan. However, the role of this proto-tabernacle is what needs to be questioned. According to P, it was a central and vital part of Israelite life in the wilderness. In reality, if it existed it was little more than a haphazardly constructed site where people can sacrifice to some ancient Semitic god (yahweh is a late judaean god that did not exist in the formative years of the Israelite tribes) in times of stress to ensure deliverance and victory in war.
What's up with the three annual festivals?
The three annual festivals are mentioned in both ancient documents of J and E and so it is likely that even before Josiah's days, those who worshipped the god of the Jerusalem temple (whatever name he went by), made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem three times a year at each turning point in the agricultural season. These festivals were named after their respective seasons. The first one was the festival of "abib" (abib literally is a young, green seed-bearing ear of grain). This holiday is celebrated during the flax harvest, in the month of Nisan (Nisan being the Babylonian name of the month adopted by the Jews after the exile). The reason it was called the Abib month in Hebrew is that the stalks of wheat start growing in this month. It is therefore the moth of "tender, green ears of wheat".
The next holiday is celebrated in the month of sivan (the Hebrew name of the month is unknown) and is called the festival of "qatsir" (harvest). This is the month during which the wheat is finally harvested. The next holiday is celebrated in the month of Ethanim (Tishri in Babylonian) and is called the festival of "asiph" (gathering) for in this month people gather their wine and oil from the winepress and oilpress which were situated in the open field. During the summer, farmers were engaged in the process of working the winepress and the oilpress to produce wine and oil. Now that the raining season is about to kick in, the precious juices must be gathered in to the house to protect themt from the winter rain. Wheat may also have remained in the field throughout the summer and must now be brought in to the house. Thus it is called "festival of the gathering".
To summarize, we have the following:
Festival celebrated in the month of tender ears of grain (Abib), Nisan in Babylonian.
Festival celebrated in the month of wheat harvest (qatsir), Sivan in Babylonian.
Festival celebrated in the month of gathering (asiph) or ploughing (charish), Elul or Tishri in Babylonian.
Other names of these festivals, adopted in later days and mentioned in the later documents of D and P are:
festival of Pesach or festival of Matsoth for Abib
festival of shebaghoth or day of bikkurim
festival of Sukkoth or festival of the ploughing season "charish"
Some of these names seem to be mentioned in the ancient J and E documents but if you analyze these instances carefully you realize that those were not the identifying names of the festivals. For example, in the J document Exodus 34:22 its says "you shall make a septuple (consisting of seven) festival in the harvest season of the firstfruits of wheat". The Hebrew word for septuple "Shebeath" was taken to designate the name of the festival, so called because it is celebrated seven weeks after the Abib season. This is how both P and D construed the meaning of septuple, although the precise point in time from which the seven weeks ought to be counted is disputed between P and D; in P it's seven weeks from the morrow of Sabbath and in D it is seven weeks from the time when the sickle is first applied to the grain.
However, I believe that this represents an error on the part of later generations in interpreting the ancient JE documents. It is important to understand that the ancient JE documents were not widely known when they were first authored and finalized in the period of the divided kingdom (eighth century BCE). Furthermore, those documents were authored by the proponents of yahwism and advocated the worship of yahweh only, but in the eighth century BCE the yahweh cult (including the three annual festivals held in Jerusalem) was marginal even in Judah. This is why in 2kings 23:22 it says that "there was not held such a Passover from the days of the judges that judged Israel, nor in all the days of the kings of Israel, nor of the kings of Judah" in description of the pesach held in the time of Josiah circa 630 BCE. If this is indeed the case, then we have the deuteronomistic reformers and --later-- the priestly revivalists trying to reconstruct a dormant religion. They would be reading an ancient text that says something about a septuple festival and interpret that to mean a one day holiday held after seven weeks when in reality the text is talking about a seven day holiday tied to a specific season --that of wheat harvest-- and to nothing else.
What prompted the deuteronomists to invent this utterly erroneous interpretation of "septuple"?
This is debatable. One possibility is that they wanted to make it easier to observe yahwism by only requiring pilgrims to spend one day in Jerusalem during the busy qatsir season (recall, that in the priestly days seven day festivals were literally seven days long, unlike the J definition of a seven-day festival in which work is permitted during the first six days). Another possibility is that they sought to better define the timing of the holiday. Finally, it may have been an earnest mistake. Whatever the background for this misinterpretation of "septuple", I am convinced that the deuteronomist, and later the priestly author following his lead, made a major deviation from the real meaning of septuple.
How do I know that septuple in JE really refers to seven days and not seven weeks?
There are several clues:
* In the J document Exodus 34, it mentions the abib festival first and admonishes worshippers to bring along their firstborn animals to sacrifice to yahweh during the festival: "not to see the face of yahweh emptyhanded". Then it describes the actual festival as containing seven days, the first six days of which are work days, that is, one is not required to be in the temple but may work his field and the seventh day is the rest day. Then a new paragraph begins saying "you shall rest in the ploughing season and in the harvest season" and it goes on describing those two additional festivals saying "you shall make a septuple (consisting of seven) festival in the harvest season of the firstfruits of wheat and the (septuple) festival of the gathering season at the rounding of the year. In other words, it is saying that the same seven day holiday of abib just
described in verse 21 shall also be observed in the harvest season and in the gathering/ploughing season.
* the Hebrew letter he preceding a noun is called the "he hayediah" (he of the known) and designates a specific, known noun, a noun that has already been mentioned previously or is otherwise already known to the listener or reader. In the J document, there is a he in the mention of "festival of the Matsoth" and in the mention of "festival of the Asiph" but there is no he in the mention of "a septuple festival". This is because there is no single septuple festival; rather, all three festivals are septuple festivals. The verse is just saying that the same septuple festival observed in the Abib season should also be observed in the harvest and gathering season. In fact, in the corresponding E document (Exodus 23), there is no mention of the term septuple altogether. The second holiday, which the deuteronomist called "festival of weeks" (Deuteronomy 16:9) and the priestly writer called "day of the firstfruits" (Numbers 28:26), is called "festival of the harvest" in the E document (Exodus 23:16), a term which is mentioned by the J document as well in describing the timing of the festival (bikkurei qatsir chittim), although without the he hayediah. Thus, according to the JE tradition the second festival is a harvest festival, not a septuple festival (as distinguished from other festivals), not a weeks festival and not a firstfruits festival.
* Nowhere in J or E is there any indication that the qatsir festival might be a one-day only celebration. According to our interpretation of the J document, it is saying outright that qatsir is a septuple festival, that is, consisting of seven days. But even if we take the deuteronomist interpretation that it's talking about seven weeks, it still doesn't say that it's a one day only festival. We should therefore logically assume that qatsir is the same kind of festival as abib and
asiph, a seven day festival as described in Exodus 34:21 "six days you may work but on the seventh day you shall rest".
* The Hebrew term "shibeghath" in the J document is spelled using the four hebrew letter shin, beth, ayin, thaw. In accordance with our belief that no cholem vowel should be applied in Hebrew unless a waw is present, the correct pronunciation of this word is shibeghath (or "shibeath" if you choose to pronounce the ayin as an aleph) and not shibeghoth as the masoretes would have it. If the masoretes were right then the word would have had a waw after the ayin indicating the plural and it would therefore mean "weeks" (shebagh or shabuagh being the singular). Without the waw in the word, it simply means an entity of seven or a count of seven, not a week.
How was the ancient festival of Pesach (Abib) observed according to the JE tradition?
As soon as the new moon appeared in the season of abib, the "matsoth festival" commenced. Noone was allowed to eat leavened bread for seven days. However, there was no requirement to refrain from work and be at the temple until the seventh day; during the first six days one may work his field (Exodus 34:21). All male firstborn cattle and sheep (born after the last
annual festival) were dedicated to yahweh, the cattle may not be used to work the field and the wool of the sheep may not be shorn. Those animals constituted the pesach sacrifice and were taken along by the worshipper on his pilgrimage to the temple on the seventh day. Technically, firstborn male humans had to be dedicated to yahweh as well. This is openly stated in the E document (Exodus 13:2) and the priestly author went to great lengths explaining how the ancient Israelites redeemed their firstborn humans by substitution with Levites (Numbers 3:11-51). However, this concept did not have a realistic application since the practice of sacrificing humans to God was not commonly practiced even among the ancient Israelites. Only in very severe circumstances would a person offer up a child as a sacrifice like yiphtach did (Judges 11:30).
Once at the temple, the firstborn animals were slaughtered by the priests as the "Pesach" sacrifice. The blood and fats were given to yahweh (sprinkled or burned on the altar) and the meat and hide were shared between the priest and the worshipper. It is not known precisely how they divided the animal but we do know that both the priest and the worshipper had certain rights to it. In deuteronomy 18:3 it says that priests were entitled to the arm, the cheeks and the belly of all sacrifices brought to the temple. It does not differentiate between the Pesach and other voluntary peace offerings (neder or nedabah). There was probably a similar scheme in place during the J period (eighth century BCE).
While feasting on the Pesach, leavened bread (chamets) may not be eaten; this is the meaning of "you shall not slaughter the blood of my sacrifice with unleavened bread" (exodus 34:25). It means "you shall not eat the meat of my sacrifice along with unleavened bread". Note that Maror, a kind of bitter herb, is not mentioned in the JE documents. The requirement to eat Maror with the Pesach is an addition by P and it is not clear whether this is an unusual requirement or perhaps it's the usual or ritual way of eating sacrificial meat.
The meat of the Pesach had to be consumed on the evening of the seventh day and whatever was left over until the morning had to be burnt (the burning requirement is a priestly addition Leviticus 7:17 and elsewhere). The reasoning behind this bizarre law is not clear. We know, for example, that in the priestly days multiple households "enrolled" on a single Pesach animal so that no meat went to waste (Exodus 12:4) but this practice of sharing the Pesach among several households is the effect of the ancient law requiring that no meat be left over until the morning and not the cause. Perhaps this law was designed to encourage feasting like there's no tomorrow and to discourage frugality. Meat was a precious luxury in ancient Israelite days. Meat was not eaten on a daily basis or even on a weekly basis. When one wanted to eat meat in the Judah of the divided kingdom, he was expected to make a pilgrimage to the temple and share the animal with yahweh and the priests. If worshippers had any desire to salt some of the meat and preserve it for consumption back home, this law was designed to prevent such practice and encourage unbridled consumption of the Pesach meat on the festival day.
It is also possible, that the law was designed to force people to sacrifice at the temple and share the meat with the priests. If they could salt the meat and take it with them back home, then they would not be inclined to share the meat with the priests. Furthermore, the frequency of pilgrimages would decline since people would still have some meat left over at home from their previous sacrifice.
Finally, there is one more point that I should make about the J description of the Pesach. In exodus 34:23 it says "Three times in the year shall all your males see the face of the lord yahweh, the God of Israel". This has traditionally been construed to refer to male humans and "seeing the face of god" was understood simply to be synonymous with worshipping god. I strongly disagree with this, however. This would mean that all male servants and toddlers are required to make the pilgrimage, which is quite burdensome, costly and unreasonable. Rather, it means that all male animals must see the face of God in the form of being sacrificed to God. It is a recapitulation of the required dedication of firstborn animals to yahweh mentioned in verses 19-20 and the intention here is all male "firstborn" animals, not literally all male animals.
"all your males" might also include human firsborns insofar as they could be dedicated to yahweh, but --as mentioned earlier-- since the practice of sacrificing humans to god was not considered appropriate when J was authored and levite priests had already been firmly established in the temple (so that there was no need to to devote firstborn humans to God as priests), the dedication of humans to yahweh was not really practicable. This clause "all your males" might be a leftover from an extremely ancient Semitic religion in which human sacrifice was considered acceptable.
How was Pesach observed according to D and P?
You have probably noticed my description of Pesach being observed on the seventh day and not the first day of the seven day festival. This is unequivocally stated in both J and E. The deuteronomist is the one who changed the sacrificial day of Pesach from the last day to the first day and the priestly writer followed faithfully in his footsteps (somewhat similar to the way the qatsir festival was altered by both D and P). J says openly that on the first six days of the Pesach festival one may work the field and only on the seventh day one is required to rest, that is, make the pilgrimage to the temple and offer up the Pesach sacrifice. How can one possibly work on the first day while simultaneously make a pilgrimage to the temple to sacrifice the Pesach? It is therefore abundantly clear that J is designating the seventh day as the sacrificial day. The first six days are merely counting days towards the seventh day during which chamets may not be eaten.
In E this practice is even more pronounced. It says (Exodus 13:4) "sanctify every newborn human and animal among the children of Israel to me... Today you are emerging (from Egypt) on the new moon of Abib and so once yahweh brings you to the canaanite land... You shall perform those acts of worship (ban against chamets and sanctification of the newborn) on this new moon, thus: six days you shall eat unleavened bread and the seventh day shall be a festival to yahweh... and you shall tell your son on that day (=the seventh day) saying: because of this (act of worship), yahweh did (all those miracles) for me when I emerged from Egypt". The masoretic text reads seven days in Exodus 13:6 but the Septuagint, which represents an older and more reliable Hebrew text, reads six days, just like it is in the J text. Regardless, E says openly that the festival is held on the seventh day and there's no mention of any additional first-day festival like the the priestly writer would have it (Leviticus 23:7-8).
This switch from the seventh day to the first day was not initiated by the priestly author, however. The deuteronomist is the one who started it. In deuteronomy 16:1 "guard the new moon of abib and make a Pesach to yahweh your god (on that day)... and there shall not be left over until the morning from the meat that you sacrifice on the evening of the first day". Thus, the deuteronomist makes the first day celebration of Pesach as clear as JE makes the seventh day.
Ironically, all three sources agree that the seven days are counted from the new moon of abib but the priestly writer changed even that. According to the P document, the festival actually consists of eight days. First comes the day on which the Pesach is offered, in the afternoon
of the fourteenth day of the first month (Exodus 12:6 and Leviticus 23:5). Then comes a seven day holiday from the fifteenth until the twenty-first of the month (Exodus 12:18). The term "first day" which designates the first of the seven days of the Pesach festival in the P document, refers to the fifteenth day of Nisan, not the fourteenth - the day the Pesach is sacrificed. The deuteronomist, on the other hand, does not suggest such a scheme. The deuteronomist insists that the seven days are counted from the new year as mentioned earlier and he also insists that the Pesach is sacrificed on the "first day" of the seven days (Deuteronomy 16:4) and not the day before the first day as specified by P.
How were the JE festivals of Qatsir and Asiph observed?
As pointed out earlier both Qatsir and Asiph are seven-day festivals tied to an agricultural season in the solar year just like Pesach (abib) is tied to the appearance of the tender, green stalks of grain. What is not clear is whether those festivals are tied to lunar months as well. The term Chadash (Chodesh) in ancient Hebrew always means a new moon. It does not refer to a solar month, which is an artificial division of the solar year into twelve parts. We know that Pesach is tied to the solar abib season AND to the lunar new moon that appears in that season, for the text says openly "chodesh ha'abib" (the new moon that falls in the abib season). Are Qatsir and Asiph tied to a new moon in their respective solar seasons as well? in the JE document there is no such suggestion but JE only briefly mentions these festivals and so it is possible that their connection to the new moon within the appropriate agricultural season is taken for granted.
It seems logical to assume that the qatsir and asiph festivals had the same model as the Abib festival, namely, start counting seven days from the new moon day that falls in the appropriate agricultural season and designate the seventh day as the pilgrimage day.
But what about the Pesach offering and the matzah requirement? Did these practices apply to the Qatsir and Asiph festivals as well? Again, the JE document does not clarify this matter and since these traditions were not commonly practiced during the JE period (eighth century BCE or earlier) it is extremely hard to try to reconstruct the precise meaning of these ancient documents.
If we look at Exodus 34:25 "Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leaven; neither shall the sacrifice of the feast of the passover be left unto the morning" we see a parallelism between the first part and second part of this verse. According to this poetic expression, "my sacrifice" and "sacrifice of the feast of passover" are one and the same. Instead of referring to an object by the same name twice, the correct poetic way is to name it slightly differently when referring to it again in the same verse just like we say in English "John excelled in math but he was not proficient in Science"; we don't use the verb "excel" twice. Thus, all sacrifices offered to yahweh on any of the three annual festivals (and possibly all other sacrifices as well) are called Pesach sacrifices and the two cardinal Pesach rules essentially apply to all sacrifices: no leavened bread may be eaten with the meat and no meat may be left over until the following morning.
So we have established that the Pesach animal sacrifice applied to all three JE festivals. Now what about the seven-day matzah requirement? Was there a prohibition against eating chamets for seven days during the Qatsir and Asiph festivals?
According to our understanding that during the first six days of the festival, one was allowed to work their field at home and not be present at the temple, the only defining practice during those days was the abstention from chamets. Thus, the abstention from chamets for six days prior to the actual feast day is integral to any seven day festival, including Qatsir and Asiph.
However, there is a problem with this. We know that only the abib festival was called a "matsoth festival"; this is quite clear in the E document (Exodus 23:15-16) which names the festivals: festival of the unleavened bread, festival of the harvest and festival of the gathering. The question is, why isn't it called "festival of the abib", consistent with the other two festivals that are named after their respective agricultural seasons. It seems that the seven-day matzah rule was somehow unique to the abib festival and it alone was therefore called the matzah festival whereas the other festivals did not have this rule and could therefore not be called so and were therefore named after their agricultural season.
Notwithstanding the ambiguity in the way J expresses himself, I still insist that J really meant for all three festivals to contain a preceding six day ban against chamets. Here's how the document should be interpreted:
"Guard the the festival of matsoth, you shall eat matsoth for seven days, as I have (already) commanded you" - this is a preface. What he's saying here is that whenever a festival to God is celebrated, there should be a seven day ban against chamets. Now he goes on describing the three seasons during which festivals should be held. First comes "the season in the month of abib for in the month of abib you emerged from Egypt.." and then he says that two additional seasonal "matzah" festivals should be held: "In the ploughing season and in the harvest season you shall rest" and he explains "observe a septuple festival at the firstfruit-of-wheat harvest season and observe the gathering festival (which coincides with the ploughing season) at the end of the year". By "the gathering festival" J means "the matzah festival that occurs in the gathering season" (chaj hamatsoth shel asiph).
In support of my theory that all three festivals are meant to be matzah festivals, it should be noted that the priestly author expanded the ban against chamets to virtually all sacrifices brought to yahweh, not just "pesach" animal sacrifices brought on the abib or other annual festivals. In Leviticus 2:11 it states "You shall not make chamets any grain offering brought before yahweh".
In all likelihood, leavened bread was seen by these ancient peoples as contaminated and impure, unfit for a godly sacrifice and inappropriate to be eaten together with the meat of a godly sacrifice, even though they acknowledged that it tasted better. Thus, the ban against chamets originally had nothing to do with the abib festival in particular or with the Exodus. Only in later generations was the ban against chamets attributed to the fact that the Israelites did not have time to let their dough rise when leaving Egypt and thus isolated to the festival of abib since that is when the Israelites left Egypt. This connection was admittedly made by the E author and is clearly articulated in the verses Exodus 12:34-13:10. The other authors D and P followed suit and that's how abib became the only matzah festival (and the only Pesach festival).
When J gives the reason for observing a matzah festival in the Abib season "for in the month of Abib you emerged from Egypt" (Exodus 34:18), he is not giving the reason for the ban against chamets. Rather, he is explaining why the the festival is held in this season. This reasoning is also expressed in E (Exodus 13:4-5) "This day came ye out in the month Abib, and it shall be when the LORD shall bring thee into the land of the Canaanites... that thou shalt keep this service in this month".
Both J and E say in connection with the prohibition against chamets "As I have commanded you" (Exodus 34:18 and 23:15). The question is: where had this command been given before?
Answer: It is in Exodus 13:7 "Matsoth shall be eaten for seven days and you shall not see chamets or sourdough in your entire border". Although this chapter is generally considered to be an E document, this particular verse does not fit in here and I believe it was inserted here from a very ancient source by a late editor of the JE manuscript. The previous verse is not only repetitive of this verse but it actually contradicts this verse if we go by the Septuagint version which reads "six days you shall eat matzah..." But even if we go by the Masorete version, it seems bizarre and repetitious:
verse 6: seven days you shall eat matzah...
verse 7: matsoth shall be eaten for seven days...
Verse 7 should be contrasted with the P document who also admonishes against having any chamets or sourdough in the house (Exodus 12:15 and 12:19). The priestly writer mentions both chamets and sourdough but he says uses the term "it shall not be found" rather than "it shall not be seen". Also, he talks about the house rather than the border. Clearly, verse 7 is a very ancient verse, thus explaining why it talks about a border and not house, since the Israelites presumably lived a nomadic lifestyle then and did not posses any houses. Also, the term seeing instead of finding in verse 7 is also suggestive of its antiquity, for the early tribes always used verbs that were intimately tied with one of the five senses.
I think that in all likelihood, this particular verse was taken from an extremely old document (or more likely stone inscription that was widely known among the contemporary tribes. Everyone knew that there was a seven-day complete ban against chamets while sacrificing to the deity. The J author came to clarify this old tradition and said that three annual festivals should be held and he added some other rules as well. This explains "as I have commanded you" very nicely, as the J author is referring back to a known command in order to provide legitimacy and a solid base for his agenda.
Q: which document was authored first between P and D?
A: clearly P and D are distinct documents. Upon critical analysis, one notices differences in language as well as theology. D emphasizes centrality of worship and talks about the "levite priests". D is not concerned with exact dates and numbers or the details of priests and sacrifices like P is. It is almost impossible to believe that they are contemporary documents.
Take, for example the festival of "shavuoth". According to P we must count seven weeks from the morrow of the Sabbath and then bring a new grain offering to God. According to D we count seven weeks from the time that the sickle is first applied to the standing grain. These two counting systems are not compatible and it is therefore very unlikely that both documents
existed simultaneously.
Thus, the only question remains which one was authored first and in what generation they did apply. After extensive research and careful deliberation, I have come to the conclusion that the traditional belief that D was a product of the Josiah days is correct. But I have also found that P is a product of the post-exilic period. As said earlier, it could not have been authored in the waning days of the first temple because that was the D period. It doesn't seem to have been authored during the exile because it is too much concerned with practices that were not executable during the exile. I understand that the exiled people of Judaea undoubtedly had a great concern for preserving their laws traditions and the P document could theoretically be part of that effort. But I see in P more than mere preservation of tradition. The P author was very creative; he attempted to create new formulas of worship and clarify ritual ambiguities. Such an effort seems to be related to actual worship, not just to preserve the memories of bygone days. The laws of the Leviticus are nowhere to be found in the D document, and so P would not be inventing these laws unless it could be applied in real life and that is post-exilic.
What remains a bit more difficult to prove is that P is not a product of the pre-Josiah days, perhaps the days of his grand-grandfather Hezekiah who is also known to have been a yawhist. Against this possibility, you should take note of the following:
* P is an extremely extensive code. It covers virtually everything contained in the ancient JE documents, most of the material covered by D and a host of new priestly material not found in any other document. If these codes already existed in the Deutoronomistic days, they should have been at least partially incorporated in D. For example, the different ways of performing the sacrificial rites for the "Olah", "Shelamim" and "Asham" are elaborated in detail in Leviticus but not mentioned at all in deuteronomy.
* Before Hezekiah's days the yahweh cult barely existed. Sacrifices in the temple were not practiced routinely or regulated. People typically brought their sacrifices to "high places" located in the countryside and dedicated to other gods. In Hezekiah's days, all the high places were abolished and only yahweh was to be worshipped but those revolutionary changes never took root for his son manasseh reversed all of his father's reforms. Thus, it is questionable whether the yahweh priests in Hezekiah's days had enough popular support to produce the kind of work contained in P.
* P mentions the holiday of Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashana, not mentioned in D and not mentioned anywhere else in the bible. There is no evidence that these holidays were ever practiced during the first temple. In fact even the holiday of Pesach and Sukkoth were only practiced during the reign of yahwist kings such as Hezekiah and Josiah.
* The language and mood of P is that of a later stage in the religious development of the ancient Judaeans. The terms of Qahal (congregation), Qodesh vs chalal (holy vs profane), ghedah (assembly/testament), zakar and neqebah (male and female), are all widespread in P but not commonly present in any other documents.
* The book recording the works of the priest Ezekial who lived during the exile shares many common characteristics with the P document. Thus it is believed that he belonged to the school that authored the P document. BTW, Jeremiah, on the other hand, contains many similarities to the D document, thus confirming that D was authored in his days.
Is the tabernacle (mishkan) of the exodus myth or fact?
The way it is described in P is -no doubt- fiction. For one, since the details of the exodus tabernacle or even its very existence is not present in any other document, how could the P author possibly know so many details about it seven centuries later (or more)? Secondly, in P the tabernacle and the tent of meeting (Ohel Moed) are the same but there is no hint in E that the tent of meeting was anything other than a simple tent where Moses convened with god. There is no mention that the ark of the covenant was housed there or that there was any sort of altar located within it (the incense altar) or about it (the olah altar). These are very important details and could not have been accidentally missed by the E author. In this case, I must conclude that E's silence about the function of the tent of meeting as a place of worship as described in P, is evidence that the tent of meeting did not serve that function according to E.
Regardless, the details of the Tabernacle such as that it was made of logs of cedarwood inserted vertically into bases (aden) and covered by multiple textile covers, are fictitious. These details were made up by the P author in an attempt to vivify and idealize the tabernacle. Just like the third temple envisioned by Ezekial never came to pass and all its details were meant to idealize a future perfect temple, so is P's depiction of the Exodus tabernacle an attempt to envision an ideal tabernacle of the past. Note that it was essential for P to depict the orthodox yahweh lifestyle as having originated in the days of Moses. P could not claim that there was a temple in the wilderness, for a temple is a permanent dwelling built in stone and that could not have existed in Moses' days. Instead, P took the Shiloh tabernacle, idealized it and placed it in the wilderness with Moses, merging it with the tent of meeting. Another example where we can see P making up a story in order to legitimize its new program is the story of the Yom Kippur sacrifice in the wilderness as told in Leviticus 16. It is designed to pin the origin of this newly invented holiday to Moses and thus establish its legitimacy.
In my opinion, there definitely is a possibility that the ancient Israelites roamed the wilderness with some sort of mobile shrine. We have no reason to doubt that the Shiloh tabernacle existed in the days of Eli and Samuel 150 years after the exodus and so it is very possible that some sort of tabernacle existed before the Israelites settled in Canaan. However, the role of this proto-tabernacle is what needs to be questioned. According to P, it was a central and vital part of Israelite life in the wilderness. In reality, if it existed it was little more than a haphazardly constructed site where people can sacrifice to some ancient Semitic god (yahweh is a late judaean god that did not exist in the formative years of the Israelite tribes) in times of stress to ensure deliverance and victory in war.
What's up with the three annual festivals?
The three annual festivals are mentioned in both ancient documents of J and E and so it is likely that even before Josiah's days, those who worshipped the god of the Jerusalem temple (whatever name he went by), made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem three times a year at each turning point in the agricultural season. These festivals were named after their respective seasons. The first one was the festival of "abib" (abib literally is a young, green seed-bearing ear of grain). This holiday is celebrated during the flax harvest, in the month of Nisan (Nisan being the Babylonian name of the month adopted by the Jews after the exile). The reason it was called the Abib month in Hebrew is that the stalks of wheat start growing in this month. It is therefore the moth of "tender, green ears of wheat".
The next holiday is celebrated in the month of sivan (the Hebrew name of the month is unknown) and is called the festival of "qatsir" (harvest). This is the month during which the wheat is finally harvested. The next holiday is celebrated in the month of Ethanim (Tishri in Babylonian) and is called the festival of "asiph" (gathering) for in this month people gather their wine and oil from the winepress and oilpress which were situated in the open field. During the summer, farmers were engaged in the process of working the winepress and the oilpress to produce wine and oil. Now that the raining season is about to kick in, the precious juices must be gathered in to the house to protect themt from the winter rain. Wheat may also have remained in the field throughout the summer and must now be brought in to the house. Thus it is called "festival of the gathering".
To summarize, we have the following:
Festival celebrated in the month of tender ears of grain (Abib), Nisan in Babylonian.
Festival celebrated in the month of wheat harvest (qatsir), Sivan in Babylonian.
Festival celebrated in the month of gathering (asiph) or ploughing (charish), Elul or Tishri in Babylonian.
Other names of these festivals, adopted in later days and mentioned in the later documents of D and P are:
festival of Pesach or festival of Matsoth for Abib
festival of shebaghoth or day of bikkurim
festival of Sukkoth or festival of the ploughing season "charish"
Some of these names seem to be mentioned in the ancient J and E documents but if you analyze these instances carefully you realize that those were not the identifying names of the festivals. For example, in the J document Exodus 34:22 its says "you shall make a septuple (consisting of seven) festival in the harvest season of the firstfruits of wheat". The Hebrew word for septuple "Shebeath" was taken to designate the name of the festival, so called because it is celebrated seven weeks after the Abib season. This is how both P and D construed the meaning of septuple, although the precise point in time from which the seven weeks ought to be counted is disputed between P and D; in P it's seven weeks from the morrow of Sabbath and in D it is seven weeks from the time when the sickle is first applied to the grain.
However, I believe that this represents an error on the part of later generations in interpreting the ancient JE documents. It is important to understand that the ancient JE documents were not widely known when they were first authored and finalized in the period of the divided kingdom (eighth century BCE). Furthermore, those documents were authored by the proponents of yahwism and advocated the worship of yahweh only, but in the eighth century BCE the yahweh cult (including the three annual festivals held in Jerusalem) was marginal even in Judah. This is why in 2kings 23:22 it says that "there was not held such a Passover from the days of the judges that judged Israel, nor in all the days of the kings of Israel, nor of the kings of Judah" in description of the pesach held in the time of Josiah circa 630 BCE. If this is indeed the case, then we have the deuteronomistic reformers and --later-- the priestly revivalists trying to reconstruct a dormant religion. They would be reading an ancient text that says something about a septuple festival and interpret that to mean a one day holiday held after seven weeks when in reality the text is talking about a seven day holiday tied to a specific season --that of wheat harvest-- and to nothing else.
What prompted the deuteronomists to invent this utterly erroneous interpretation of "septuple"?
This is debatable. One possibility is that they wanted to make it easier to observe yahwism by only requiring pilgrims to spend one day in Jerusalem during the busy qatsir season (recall, that in the priestly days seven day festivals were literally seven days long, unlike the J definition of a seven-day festival in which work is permitted during the first six days). Another possibility is that they sought to better define the timing of the holiday. Finally, it may have been an earnest mistake. Whatever the background for this misinterpretation of "septuple", I am convinced that the deuteronomist, and later the priestly author following his lead, made a major deviation from the real meaning of septuple.
How do I know that septuple in JE really refers to seven days and not seven weeks?
There are several clues:
* In the J document Exodus 34, it mentions the abib festival first and admonishes worshippers to bring along their firstborn animals to sacrifice to yahweh during the festival: "not to see the face of yahweh emptyhanded". Then it describes the actual festival as containing seven days, the first six days of which are work days, that is, one is not required to be in the temple but may work his field and the seventh day is the rest day. Then a new paragraph begins saying "you shall rest in the ploughing season and in the harvest season" and it goes on describing those two additional festivals saying "you shall make a septuple (consisting of seven) festival in the harvest season of the firstfruits of wheat and the (septuple) festival of the gathering season at the rounding of the year. In other words, it is saying that the same seven day holiday of abib just
described in verse 21 shall also be observed in the harvest season and in the gathering/ploughing season.
* the Hebrew letter he preceding a noun is called the "he hayediah" (he of the known) and designates a specific, known noun, a noun that has already been mentioned previously or is otherwise already known to the listener or reader. In the J document, there is a he in the mention of "festival of the Matsoth" and in the mention of "festival of the Asiph" but there is no he in the mention of "a septuple festival". This is because there is no single septuple festival; rather, all three festivals are septuple festivals. The verse is just saying that the same septuple festival observed in the Abib season should also be observed in the harvest and gathering season. In fact, in the corresponding E document (Exodus 23), there is no mention of the term septuple altogether. The second holiday, which the deuteronomist called "festival of weeks" (Deuteronomy 16:9) and the priestly writer called "day of the firstfruits" (Numbers 28:26), is called "festival of the harvest" in the E document (Exodus 23:16), a term which is mentioned by the J document as well in describing the timing of the festival (bikkurei qatsir chittim), although without the he hayediah. Thus, according to the JE tradition the second festival is a harvest festival, not a septuple festival (as distinguished from other festivals), not a weeks festival and not a firstfruits festival.
* Nowhere in J or E is there any indication that the qatsir festival might be a one-day only celebration. According to our interpretation of the J document, it is saying outright that qatsir is a septuple festival, that is, consisting of seven days. But even if we take the deuteronomist interpretation that it's talking about seven weeks, it still doesn't say that it's a one day only festival. We should therefore logically assume that qatsir is the same kind of festival as abib and
asiph, a seven day festival as described in Exodus 34:21 "six days you may work but on the seventh day you shall rest".
* The Hebrew term "shibeghath" in the J document is spelled using the four hebrew letter shin, beth, ayin, thaw. In accordance with our belief that no cholem vowel should be applied in Hebrew unless a waw is present, the correct pronunciation of this word is shibeghath (or "shibeath" if you choose to pronounce the ayin as an aleph) and not shibeghoth as the masoretes would have it. If the masoretes were right then the word would have had a waw after the ayin indicating the plural and it would therefore mean "weeks" (shebagh or shabuagh being the singular). Without the waw in the word, it simply means an entity of seven or a count of seven, not a week.
How was the ancient festival of Pesach (Abib) observed according to the JE tradition?
As soon as the new moon appeared in the season of abib, the "matsoth festival" commenced. Noone was allowed to eat leavened bread for seven days. However, there was no requirement to refrain from work and be at the temple until the seventh day; during the first six days one may work his field (Exodus 34:21). All male firstborn cattle and sheep (born after the last
annual festival) were dedicated to yahweh, the cattle may not be used to work the field and the wool of the sheep may not be shorn. Those animals constituted the pesach sacrifice and were taken along by the worshipper on his pilgrimage to the temple on the seventh day. Technically, firstborn male humans had to be dedicated to yahweh as well. This is openly stated in the E document (Exodus 13:2) and the priestly author went to great lengths explaining how the ancient Israelites redeemed their firstborn humans by substitution with Levites (Numbers 3:11-51). However, this concept did not have a realistic application since the practice of sacrificing humans to God was not commonly practiced even among the ancient Israelites. Only in very severe circumstances would a person offer up a child as a sacrifice like yiphtach did (Judges 11:30).
Once at the temple, the firstborn animals were slaughtered by the priests as the "Pesach" sacrifice. The blood and fats were given to yahweh (sprinkled or burned on the altar) and the meat and hide were shared between the priest and the worshipper. It is not known precisely how they divided the animal but we do know that both the priest and the worshipper had certain rights to it. In deuteronomy 18:3 it says that priests were entitled to the arm, the cheeks and the belly of all sacrifices brought to the temple. It does not differentiate between the Pesach and other voluntary peace offerings (neder or nedabah). There was probably a similar scheme in place during the J period (eighth century BCE).
While feasting on the Pesach, leavened bread (chamets) may not be eaten; this is the meaning of "you shall not slaughter the blood of my sacrifice with unleavened bread" (exodus 34:25). It means "you shall not eat the meat of my sacrifice along with unleavened bread". Note that Maror, a kind of bitter herb, is not mentioned in the JE documents. The requirement to eat Maror with the Pesach is an addition by P and it is not clear whether this is an unusual requirement or perhaps it's the usual or ritual way of eating sacrificial meat.
The meat of the Pesach had to be consumed on the evening of the seventh day and whatever was left over until the morning had to be burnt (the burning requirement is a priestly addition Leviticus 7:17 and elsewhere). The reasoning behind this bizarre law is not clear. We know, for example, that in the priestly days multiple households "enrolled" on a single Pesach animal so that no meat went to waste (Exodus 12:4) but this practice of sharing the Pesach among several households is the effect of the ancient law requiring that no meat be left over until the morning and not the cause. Perhaps this law was designed to encourage feasting like there's no tomorrow and to discourage frugality. Meat was a precious luxury in ancient Israelite days. Meat was not eaten on a daily basis or even on a weekly basis. When one wanted to eat meat in the Judah of the divided kingdom, he was expected to make a pilgrimage to the temple and share the animal with yahweh and the priests. If worshippers had any desire to salt some of the meat and preserve it for consumption back home, this law was designed to prevent such practice and encourage unbridled consumption of the Pesach meat on the festival day.
It is also possible, that the law was designed to force people to sacrifice at the temple and share the meat with the priests. If they could salt the meat and take it with them back home, then they would not be inclined to share the meat with the priests. Furthermore, the frequency of pilgrimages would decline since people would still have some meat left over at home from their previous sacrifice.
Finally, there is one more point that I should make about the J description of the Pesach. In exodus 34:23 it says "Three times in the year shall all your males see the face of the lord yahweh, the God of Israel". This has traditionally been construed to refer to male humans and "seeing the face of god" was understood simply to be synonymous with worshipping god. I strongly disagree with this, however. This would mean that all male servants and toddlers are required to make the pilgrimage, which is quite burdensome, costly and unreasonable. Rather, it means that all male animals must see the face of God in the form of being sacrificed to God. It is a recapitulation of the required dedication of firstborn animals to yahweh mentioned in verses 19-20 and the intention here is all male "firstborn" animals, not literally all male animals.
"all your males" might also include human firsborns insofar as they could be dedicated to yahweh, but --as mentioned earlier-- since the practice of sacrificing humans to god was not considered appropriate when J was authored and levite priests had already been firmly established in the temple (so that there was no need to to devote firstborn humans to God as priests), the dedication of humans to yahweh was not really practicable. This clause "all your males" might be a leftover from an extremely ancient Semitic religion in which human sacrifice was considered acceptable.
How was Pesach observed according to D and P?
You have probably noticed my description of Pesach being observed on the seventh day and not the first day of the seven day festival. This is unequivocally stated in both J and E. The deuteronomist is the one who changed the sacrificial day of Pesach from the last day to the first day and the priestly writer followed faithfully in his footsteps (somewhat similar to the way the qatsir festival was altered by both D and P). J says openly that on the first six days of the Pesach festival one may work the field and only on the seventh day one is required to rest, that is, make the pilgrimage to the temple and offer up the Pesach sacrifice. How can one possibly work on the first day while simultaneously make a pilgrimage to the temple to sacrifice the Pesach? It is therefore abundantly clear that J is designating the seventh day as the sacrificial day. The first six days are merely counting days towards the seventh day during which chamets may not be eaten.
In E this practice is even more pronounced. It says (Exodus 13:4) "sanctify every newborn human and animal among the children of Israel to me... Today you are emerging (from Egypt) on the new moon of Abib and so once yahweh brings you to the canaanite land... You shall perform those acts of worship (ban against chamets and sanctification of the newborn) on this new moon, thus: six days you shall eat unleavened bread and the seventh day shall be a festival to yahweh... and you shall tell your son on that day (=the seventh day) saying: because of this (act of worship), yahweh did (all those miracles) for me when I emerged from Egypt". The masoretic text reads seven days in Exodus 13:6 but the Septuagint, which represents an older and more reliable Hebrew text, reads six days, just like it is in the J text. Regardless, E says openly that the festival is held on the seventh day and there's no mention of any additional first-day festival like the the priestly writer would have it (Leviticus 23:7-8).
This switch from the seventh day to the first day was not initiated by the priestly author, however. The deuteronomist is the one who started it. In deuteronomy 16:1 "guard the new moon of abib and make a Pesach to yahweh your god (on that day)... and there shall not be left over until the morning from the meat that you sacrifice on the evening of the first day". Thus, the deuteronomist makes the first day celebration of Pesach as clear as JE makes the seventh day.
Ironically, all three sources agree that the seven days are counted from the new moon of abib but the priestly writer changed even that. According to the P document, the festival actually consists of eight days. First comes the day on which the Pesach is offered, in the afternoon
of the fourteenth day of the first month (Exodus 12:6 and Leviticus 23:5). Then comes a seven day holiday from the fifteenth until the twenty-first of the month (Exodus 12:18). The term "first day" which designates the first of the seven days of the Pesach festival in the P document, refers to the fifteenth day of Nisan, not the fourteenth - the day the Pesach is sacrificed. The deuteronomist, on the other hand, does not suggest such a scheme. The deuteronomist insists that the seven days are counted from the new year as mentioned earlier and he also insists that the Pesach is sacrificed on the "first day" of the seven days (Deuteronomy 16:4) and not the day before the first day as specified by P.
How were the JE festivals of Qatsir and Asiph observed?
As pointed out earlier both Qatsir and Asiph are seven-day festivals tied to an agricultural season in the solar year just like Pesach (abib) is tied to the appearance of the tender, green stalks of grain. What is not clear is whether those festivals are tied to lunar months as well. The term Chadash (Chodesh) in ancient Hebrew always means a new moon. It does not refer to a solar month, which is an artificial division of the solar year into twelve parts. We know that Pesach is tied to the solar abib season AND to the lunar new moon that appears in that season, for the text says openly "chodesh ha'abib" (the new moon that falls in the abib season). Are Qatsir and Asiph tied to a new moon in their respective solar seasons as well? in the JE document there is no such suggestion but JE only briefly mentions these festivals and so it is possible that their connection to the new moon within the appropriate agricultural season is taken for granted.
It seems logical to assume that the qatsir and asiph festivals had the same model as the Abib festival, namely, start counting seven days from the new moon day that falls in the appropriate agricultural season and designate the seventh day as the pilgrimage day.
But what about the Pesach offering and the matzah requirement? Did these practices apply to the Qatsir and Asiph festivals as well? Again, the JE document does not clarify this matter and since these traditions were not commonly practiced during the JE period (eighth century BCE or earlier) it is extremely hard to try to reconstruct the precise meaning of these ancient documents.
If we look at Exodus 34:25 "Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leaven; neither shall the sacrifice of the feast of the passover be left unto the morning" we see a parallelism between the first part and second part of this verse. According to this poetic expression, "my sacrifice" and "sacrifice of the feast of passover" are one and the same. Instead of referring to an object by the same name twice, the correct poetic way is to name it slightly differently when referring to it again in the same verse just like we say in English "John excelled in math but he was not proficient in Science"; we don't use the verb "excel" twice. Thus, all sacrifices offered to yahweh on any of the three annual festivals (and possibly all other sacrifices as well) are called Pesach sacrifices and the two cardinal Pesach rules essentially apply to all sacrifices: no leavened bread may be eaten with the meat and no meat may be left over until the following morning.
So we have established that the Pesach animal sacrifice applied to all three JE festivals. Now what about the seven-day matzah requirement? Was there a prohibition against eating chamets for seven days during the Qatsir and Asiph festivals?
According to our understanding that during the first six days of the festival, one was allowed to work their field at home and not be present at the temple, the only defining practice during those days was the abstention from chamets. Thus, the abstention from chamets for six days prior to the actual feast day is integral to any seven day festival, including Qatsir and Asiph.
However, there is a problem with this. We know that only the abib festival was called a "matsoth festival"; this is quite clear in the E document (Exodus 23:15-16) which names the festivals: festival of the unleavened bread, festival of the harvest and festival of the gathering. The question is, why isn't it called "festival of the abib", consistent with the other two festivals that are named after their respective agricultural seasons. It seems that the seven-day matzah rule was somehow unique to the abib festival and it alone was therefore called the matzah festival whereas the other festivals did not have this rule and could therefore not be called so and were therefore named after their agricultural season.
Notwithstanding the ambiguity in the way J expresses himself, I still insist that J really meant for all three festivals to contain a preceding six day ban against chamets. Here's how the document should be interpreted:
"Guard the the festival of matsoth, you shall eat matsoth for seven days, as I have (already) commanded you" - this is a preface. What he's saying here is that whenever a festival to God is celebrated, there should be a seven day ban against chamets. Now he goes on describing the three seasons during which festivals should be held. First comes "the season in the month of abib for in the month of abib you emerged from Egypt.." and then he says that two additional seasonal "matzah" festivals should be held: "In the ploughing season and in the harvest season you shall rest" and he explains "observe a septuple festival at the firstfruit-of-wheat harvest season and observe the gathering festival (which coincides with the ploughing season) at the end of the year". By "the gathering festival" J means "the matzah festival that occurs in the gathering season" (chaj hamatsoth shel asiph).
In support of my theory that all three festivals are meant to be matzah festivals, it should be noted that the priestly author expanded the ban against chamets to virtually all sacrifices brought to yahweh, not just "pesach" animal sacrifices brought on the abib or other annual festivals. In Leviticus 2:11 it states "You shall not make chamets any grain offering brought before yahweh".
In all likelihood, leavened bread was seen by these ancient peoples as contaminated and impure, unfit for a godly sacrifice and inappropriate to be eaten together with the meat of a godly sacrifice, even though they acknowledged that it tasted better. Thus, the ban against chamets originally had nothing to do with the abib festival in particular or with the Exodus. Only in later generations was the ban against chamets attributed to the fact that the Israelites did not have time to let their dough rise when leaving Egypt and thus isolated to the festival of abib since that is when the Israelites left Egypt. This connection was admittedly made by the E author and is clearly articulated in the verses Exodus 12:34-13:10. The other authors D and P followed suit and that's how abib became the only matzah festival (and the only Pesach festival).
When J gives the reason for observing a matzah festival in the Abib season "for in the month of Abib you emerged from Egypt" (Exodus 34:18), he is not giving the reason for the ban against chamets. Rather, he is explaining why the the festival is held in this season. This reasoning is also expressed in E (Exodus 13:4-5) "This day came ye out in the month Abib, and it shall be when the LORD shall bring thee into the land of the Canaanites... that thou shalt keep this service in this month".
Both J and E say in connection with the prohibition against chamets "As I have commanded you" (Exodus 34:18 and 23:15). The question is: where had this command been given before?
Answer: It is in Exodus 13:7 "Matsoth shall be eaten for seven days and you shall not see chamets or sourdough in your entire border". Although this chapter is generally considered to be an E document, this particular verse does not fit in here and I believe it was inserted here from a very ancient source by a late editor of the JE manuscript. The previous verse is not only repetitive of this verse but it actually contradicts this verse if we go by the Septuagint version which reads "six days you shall eat matzah..." But even if we go by the Masorete version, it seems bizarre and repetitious:
verse 6: seven days you shall eat matzah...
verse 7: matsoth shall be eaten for seven days...
Verse 7 should be contrasted with the P document who also admonishes against having any chamets or sourdough in the house (Exodus 12:15 and 12:19). The priestly writer mentions both chamets and sourdough but he says uses the term "it shall not be found" rather than "it shall not be seen". Also, he talks about the house rather than the border. Clearly, verse 7 is a very ancient verse, thus explaining why it talks about a border and not house, since the Israelites presumably lived a nomadic lifestyle then and did not posses any houses. Also, the term seeing instead of finding in verse 7 is also suggestive of its antiquity, for the early tribes always used verbs that were intimately tied with one of the five senses.
I think that in all likelihood, this particular verse was taken from an extremely old document (or more likely stone inscription that was widely known among the contemporary tribes. Everyone knew that there was a seven-day complete ban against chamets while sacrificing to the deity. The J author came to clarify this old tradition and said that three annual festivals should be held and he added some other rules as well. This explains "as I have commanded you" very nicely, as the J author is referring back to a known command in order to provide legitimacy and a solid base for his agenda.
Tuesday, November 15, 2005
The Covenant Code in Exodus 21 is an E document. Its importance lies in the fact that it is the oldest law code in the Bible after the J decalog in Exodus 34. It is therefore worthwhile for us to investigate it further. One of the first things I have noticed is that their order is NOT random. The laws are --for the most part-- neatly divided into categories.
Laws on worship
1 Law against making golden or silver idols
2 Law forbidding use of chiseled stone for yahwehעs altar
3 Law forbidding ascent to yahweh altar in steps
Laws on slaves
4 Law regarding treatment of Hebrew man-servants
5 Law regarding treatment of Hebrew maid-servants
Transgressions involving capital punishment
6 Law regarding someone who commits murder
7 Law regarding someone who hits his father
8 Law regarding someone who commits kidnapping
9 Law regarding someone who curses his father
Laws regarding person-to-person injury
10 Law regarding bodily injury caused in a quarrel
11 Law regarding someone who kills his servant
12 Law regarding seomone who causes injury to an unborn fetus
13 Law regarding someone who injures his servant
Laws regarding property that causes injury or damage
14 Law regarding an ox that gores a peron
15 Law regarding a pit that causes damage to animals
16 Law regarding an ox that injures another ox
Laws regarding a person who causes damage
17 Law regarding someone who steals sheep or cattle
18 Law regarding someone who causes fire damage to property
19 Law regarding a guard of silver or vessels 91
20 Law regarding a guard of livestock
21 Law regarding property damage caused by a borrower
Laws on day-to-day appropriate civil behavior (not punishable)
22 Law regarding someone who seduces a virgin
23 Law against witchcraft
24 Law forbidding sexual relations with an animal
25 Law regarding someone who offers sacrifices to other gods
26 Law against cheating or oppressing aliens, widows or orphans
27 Law regarding lending money
28 Law against cursing a prophet or chieftain
29 Law against delay of firstborn appropriation to God
30 Law against eating prey meat
31 Law against being a malicious witness
32 Law requiring return of an enemy’s stray animal
33 Law against judicial injustices
Law on resting times
34 Law of Shemitah-year field abandoment
35 Law requiring rest on Sabbath
Law on feasts and sacrifices at the temple
36 Law requiring observance of three annual festivals
37 Law forbidding eating a sacrifice with unleavened bread
38 Law against leaving over a sacrifice until the morning
39 Law requiring eating firstfruits at the temple
40 Law against eating an animal and its mother simultaneously
Law regarding deity worship
41 Law against prostration to canaanite gods
42 Law against immitating canaanite religious practices
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1 Law against making golden or silver idols
פרק כא
יט וַיֹּאמֶר יְהוָֹה אֶל־מֹשֶׁה כֹּה תֹאמַר אֶל־בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל אַתֶּם רְאִיתֶם כִּי מִן־הַשָּׁמַיִם דִּבַּרְתִּי עִמָּכֶֽם:
כ לֹא תַֽעֲשׂוּן אִתִּי אֱלֹהֵי כֶסֶף וֵֽאלֹהֵי זָהָב לֹא תַֽעֲשׂוּ לָכֶֽם:
2 Law forbidding use of chiseled stone for yahweh’s altar
כא מִזְבַּח אֲדָמָה תַּֽעֲשֶׂה־לִּי וְזָֽבַחְתָּ עָלָיו אֶת־עֹֽלֹתֶיךָ וְאֶת־שְׁלָמֶיךָ אֶת־צֹֽאנְךָ וְאֶת־בְּקָרֶךָ בְּכָל־הַמָּקוֹם אֲשֶׁר אַזְכִּיר אֶת־שְׁמִי אָבוֹא אֵלֶיךָ וּבֵֽרַכְתִּֽיךָ: כב וְאִם־מִזְבַּח אֲבָנִים תַּֽעֲשֶׂה־לִּי לֹֽא־תִבְנֶה אֶתְהֶן גָּזִית כִּי חַרְבְּךָ הֵנַפְתָּ עָלֶיהָ וַֽתְּחַֽלְלֶֽהָ:
3 Law forbidding ascent to yahweh altar in steps
כג וְלֹא־תַֽעֲלֶה בְמַֽעֲלֹת עַל־מִזְבְּחִי אֲשֶׁר לֹֽא־תִגָּלֶה עֶרְוָֽתְךָ עָלָֽיו: פ פ פ
[פרשת משפטים] א וְאֵלֶּה הַמִּשְׁפָּטִים אֲשֶׁר תָּשִׂים לִפְנֵיהֶֽם:
4 Law regarding treatment of Hebrew man-servants
ב כִּי תִקְנֶה עֶבֶד עִבְרִי שֵׁשׁ שָׁנִים יַֽעֲבֹד וּבַשְּׁבִעִת יֵצֵא לַֽחָפְשִׁי חִנָּֽם: ג אִם־בְּגַפּוֹ יָבֹא בְּגַפּוֹ יֵצֵא אִם־בַּעַל אִשָּׁה הוּא וְיָֽצְאָה אִשְׁתּוֹ עִמּֽוֹ: ד אִם־אֲדֹנָיו יִתֶּן־לוֹ אִשָּׁה וְיָֽלְדָה־לּוֹ בָנִים אוֹ בָנוֹת הָֽאִשָּׁה וִֽילָדֶיהָ תִּֽהְיֶה לַֽאדֹנֶיהָ וְהוּא יֵצֵא בְגַפּֽוֹ: ה וְאִם־אָמֹר יֹאמַר הָעֶבֶד אָהַבְתִּי אֶת־אֲדֹנִי אֶת־אִשְׁתִּי וְאֶת־בָּנָי לֹא אֵצֵא חָפְשִֽׁי: ו וְהִגִּישׁוֹ אֲדֹנָיו אֶל־הָאֱלֹהִים וְהִגִּישׁוֹ אֶל־הַדֶּלֶת אוֹ אֶל־הַמְּזוּזָה וְרָצַע אֲדֹנָיו אֶת־אָזְנוֹ בַּמַּרְצֵעַ וַֽעֲבָדוֹ לְעֹלָֽם: ס
5 Law regarding treatment of Hebrew maid-servants
ז וְכִֽי־יִמְכֹּר אִישׁ אֶת־בִּתּוֹ לְאָמָה לֹא תֵצֵא כְּצֵאת הָֽעֲבָדִֽים: ח אִם־רָעָה בְּעֵינֵי אֲדֹנֶיהָ אֲשֶׁר־לֹא [לוֹ] יְעָדָהּ וְהֶפְדָּהּ לְעַם נָכְרִי לֹֽא־יִמְשֹׁל לְמָכְרָהּ בְּבִגְדוֹ־בָֽהּ: ט וְאִם־לִבְנוֹ יִֽיעָדֶנָּה כְּמִשְׁפַּט הַבָּנוֹת יַֽעֲשֶׂה־לָּֽהּ: י אִם־אַחֶרֶת יִֽקַּֽח־לוֹ שְׁאֵרָהּ כְּסוּתָהּ וְעֹֽנָתָהּ לֹא יִגְרָֽע: יא וְאִם־שְׁלָשׁ־אֵלֶּה לֹא יַֽעֲשֶׂה לָהּ וְיָֽצְאָה חִנָּם אֵין כָּֽסֶף: ס
6 Law regarding someone who commits murder
יב מַכֵּה אִישׁ וָמֵת מוֹת יוּמָֽת: יג וַֽאֲשֶׁר לֹא צָדָה וְהָֽאֱלֹהִים אִנָּה לְיָדוֹ וְשַׂמְתִּי לְךָ מָקוֹם אֲשֶׁר יָנוּס שָֽׁמָּה: ס יד וְכִֽי־יָזִד אִישׁ עַל־רֵעֵהוּ לְהָרְגוֹ בְעָרְמָה מֵעִם מִזְבְּחִי תִּקָּחֶנּוּ לָמֽוּת: ס
7 Law regarding someone who hits his father
טו וּמַכֵּה אָבִיו וְאִמּוֹ מוֹת יוּמָֽת: ס
8 Law regarding someone who commits kidnapping
טז וְגֹנֵב אִישׁ וּמְכָרוֹ וְנִמְצָא בְיָדוֹ מוֹת יוּמָֽת: ס
9 Law regarding someone who curses his father
יז וּמְקַלֵּל אָבִיו וְאִמּוֹ מוֹת יוּמָֽת: ס
10 Law regarding bodily injury caused in a quarrel
יח וְכִֽי־יְרִיבֻן אֲנָשִׁים וְהִכָּה־אִישׁ אֶת־רֵעֵהוּ בְּאֶבֶן אוֹ בְאֶגְרֹף וְלֹא יָמוּת וְנָפַל לְמִשְׁכָּֽב: יט אִם־יָקוּם וְהִתְהַלֵּךְ בַּחוּץ עַל־מִשְׁעַנְתּוֹ וְנִקָּה הַמַּכֶּה רַק שִׁבְתּוֹ יִתֵּן וְרַפֹּא יְרַפֵּֽא: ס [שני
]
11 Law regarding someone who kills his servant 11
כ וְכִֽי־יַכֶּה אִישׁ אֶת־עַבְדּוֹ אוֹ אֶת־אֲמָתוֹ בַּשֵּׁבֶט וּמֵת תַּחַת יָדוֹ נָקֹם יִנָּקֵֽם: כא אַךְ אִם־יוֹם אוֹ יוֹמַיִם יַֽעֲמֹד לֹא יֻקַּם כִּי כַסְפּוֹ הֽוּא: ס
12 Law regarding seomone who causes injury to an unborn fetus
כב וְכִֽי־יִנָּצוּ אֲנָשִׁים וְנָגְפוּ אִשָּׁה הָרָה וְיָֽצְאוּ יְלָדֶיהָ וְלֹא יִֽהְיֶה אָסוֹן עָנוֹשׁ יֵֽעָנֵשׁ כַּֽאֲשֶׁר יָשִׁית עָלָיו בַּעַל הָֽאִשָּׁה וְנָתַן בִּפְלִלִֽים: כג וְאִם־אָסוֹן יִֽהְיֶה וְנָֽתַתָּה נֶפֶשׁ תַּחַת נָֽפֶשׁ: כד עַיִן תַּחַת עַיִן שֵׁן תַּחַת שֵׁן יָד תַּחַת יָד רֶגֶל תַּחַת רָֽגֶל: כה כְּוִיָּה תַּחַת כְּוִיָּה פֶּצַע תַּחַת פָּצַע חַבּוּרָה תַּחַת חַבּוּרָֽה: ס
13 Law regarding someone who injures his servant
כו וְכִֽי־יַכֶּה אִישׁ אֶת־עֵין עַבְדּוֹ אֽוֹ־אֶת־עֵין אֲמָתוֹ וְשִֽׁחֲתָהּ לַֽחָפְשִׁי יְשַׁלְּחֶנּוּ תַּחַת עֵינֽוֹ: כז וְאִם־שֵׁן עַבְדּוֹ אוֹ־שֵׁן אֲמָתוֹ יַפִּיל לַֽחָפְשִׁי יְשַׁלְּחֶנּוּ תַּחַת שִׁנּֽוֹ: פ
14 Law regarding an ox that gores a peron
כח וְכִֽי־יִגַּח שׁוֹר אֶת־אִישׁ אוֹ אֶת־אִשָּׁה וָמֵת סָקוֹל יִסָּקֵל הַשּׁוֹר וְלֹא יֵֽאָכֵל אֶת־בְּשָׂרוֹ וּבַעַל הַשּׁוֹר נָקִֽי: כט וְאִם שׁוֹר נַגָּח הוּא מִתְּמֹל שִׁלְשֹׁם וְהוּעַד בִּבְעָלָיו וְלֹא יִשְׁמְרֶנּוּ וְהֵמִית אִישׁ אוֹ אִשָּׁה הַשּׁוֹר יִסָּקֵל וְגַם־בְּעָלָיו יוּמָֽת: ל אִם־כֹּפֶר יוּשַׁת עָלָיו וְנָתַן פִּדְיֹן נַפְשׁוֹ כְּכֹל אֲשֶׁר־יוּשַׁת עָלָֽיו: לא אוֹ־בֵן יִגָּח אוֹ־בַת יִגָּח כַּמִּשְׁפָּט הַזֶּה יֵעָשֶׂה לּֽוֹ: לב אִם־עֶבֶד יִגַּח הַשּׁוֹר אוֹ אָמָה כֶּסֶף שְׁלֹשִׁים שְׁקָלִים יִתֵּן לַֽאדֹנָיו וְהַשּׁוֹר יִסָּקֵֽל: ס
15 Law regarding a pit that causes damage to animals
לג וְכִֽי־יִפְתַּח אִישׁ בּוֹר אוֹ כִּֽי־יִכְרֶה אִישׁ בֹּר וְלֹא יְכַסֶּנּוּ וְנָֽפַל־שָׁמָּה שּׁוֹר אוֹ חֲמֽוֹר: לד בַּעַל הַבּוֹר יְשַׁלֵּם כֶּסֶף יָשִׁיב לִבְעָלָיו וְהַמֵּת יִֽהְיֶה־לּֽוֹ: ס
16 Law regarding an ox that injures another ox
לה וְכִֽי־יִגֹּף שׁוֹר־אִישׁ אֶת־שׁוֹר רֵעֵהוּ וָמֵת וּמָכְרוּ אֶת־הַשּׁוֹר הַחַי וְחָצוּ אֶת־כַּסְפּוֹ וְגַם אֶת־הַמֵּת יֶֽחֱצֽוּן: לו אוֹ נוֹדַע כִּי שׁוֹר נַגָּח הוּא מִתְּמוֹל שִׁלְשֹׁם וְלֹא יִשְׁמְרֶנּוּ בְּעָלָיו שַׁלֵּם יְשַׁלֵּם שׁוֹר תַּחַת הַשּׁוֹר וְהַמֵּת יִֽהְיֶה־לּֽוֹ: ס
17 Law regarding someone who steals sheep or cattle
לז כִּי יִגְנֹֽב־אִישׁ שׁוֹר אוֹ־שֶׂה וּטְבָחוֹ אוֹ מְכָרוֹ חֲמִשָּׁה בָקָר יְשַׁלֵּם תַּחַת הַשּׁוֹר וְאַרְבַּע־צֹאן תַּחַת הַשֶּֽׂה:
פרק כב
א אִם־בַּמַּחְתֶּרֶת יִמָּצֵא הַגַּנָּב וְהֻכָּה וָמֵת אֵין לוֹ דָּמִֽים: ב אִם־זָֽרְחָה הַשֶּׁמֶשׁ עָלָיו דָּמִים לוֹ שַׁלֵּם יְשַׁלֵּם אִם־אֵין לוֹ וְנִמְכַּר בִּגְנֵֽבָתֽוֹ: ג אִם־הִמָּצֵא תִמָּצֵא בְיָדוֹ הַגְּנֵבָה מִשּׁוֹר עַד־חֲמוֹר עַד־שֶׂה חַיִּים שְׁנַיִם יְשַׁלֵּֽם: ס [שלישי]
18 Law regarding someone who causes fire damage to property
ד כִּי יַבְעֶר־אִישׁ שָׂדֶה אוֹ־כֶרֶם וְשִׁלַּח אֶת־בְּעִירֹה וּבִעֵר בִּשְׂדֵה אַחֵר מֵיטַב שָׂדֵהוּ וּמֵיטַב כַּרְמוֹ יְשַׁלֵּֽם: ס ה כִּֽי־תֵצֵא אֵשׁ וּמָֽצְאָה קֹצִים וְנֶֽאֱכַל גָּדִישׁ אוֹ הַקָּמָה אוֹ הַשָּׂדֶה שַׁלֵּם יְשַׁלֵּם הַמַּבְעִר אֶת־הַבְּעֵרָֽה: ס
Law regarding a guard of silver or vessels 19
ו כִּֽי־יִתֵּן אִישׁ אֶל־רֵעֵהוּ כֶּסֶף אֽוֹ־כֵלִים לִשְׁמֹר וְגֻנַּב מִבֵּית הָאִישׁ אִם־יִמָּצֵא הַגַּנָּב יְשַׁלֵּם שְׁנָֽיִם: ז אִם־לֹא יִמָּצֵא הַגַּנָּב וְנִקְרַב בַּֽעַל־הַבַּיִת אֶל־הָֽאֱלֹהִים אִם־לֹא שָׁלַח יָדוֹ בִּמְלֶאכֶת רֵעֵֽהוּ: ח עַֽל־כָּל־דְּבַר־פֶּשַׁע עַל־שׁוֹר עַל־חֲמוֹר עַל־שֶׂה עַל־שַׂלְמָה עַל־כָּל־אֲבֵדָה אֲשֶׁר יֹאמַר כִּי־הוּא זֶה עַד הָֽאֱלֹהִים יָבֹא דְּבַר־שְׁנֵיהֶם אֲשֶׁר יַרְשִׁיעֻן אֱלֹהִים יְשַׁלֵּם שְׁנַיִם לְרֵעֵֽהוּ: ס
20 Law regarding a guard of livestock
ט כִּֽי־יִתֵּן אִישׁ אֶל־רֵעֵהוּ חֲמוֹר אוֹ־שׁוֹר אוֹ־שֶׂה וְכָל־בְּהֵמָה לִשְׁמֹר וּמֵת אֽוֹ־נִשְׁבַּר אֽוֹ־נִשְׁבָּה אֵין רֹאֶֽה: י שְׁבֻעַת יְהֹוָה תִּֽהְיֶה בֵּין שְׁנֵיהֶם אִם־לֹא שָׁלַח יָדוֹ בִּמְלֶאכֶת רֵעֵהוּ וְלָקַח בְּעָלָיו וְלֹא יְשַׁלֵּֽם: יא וְאִם־גָּנֹב יִגָּנֵב מֵֽעִמּוֹ יְשַׁלֵּם לִבְעָלָֽיו: יב אִם־טָרֹף יִטָּרֵף יְבִאֵהוּ עֵד הַטְּרֵפָה לֹא יְשַׁלֵּֽם: פ
Law regarding property damage caused by a borrower 21
יג וְכִֽי־יִשְׁאַל אִישׁ מֵעִם רֵעֵהוּ וְנִשְׁבַּר אוֹ־מֵת בְּעָלָיו אֵין־עִמּוֹ שַׁלֵּם יְשַׁלֵּֽם: יד אִם־בְּעָלָיו עִמּוֹ לֹא יְשַׁלֵּם אִם־שָׂכִיר הוּא בָּא בִּשְׂכָרֽוֹ: ס
22 Law regarding someone who seduces a virgin
טו וְכִֽי־יְפַתֶּה אִישׁ בְּתוּלָה אֲשֶׁר לֹֽא־אֹרָשָׂה וְשָׁכַב עִמָּהּ מָהֹר יִמְהָרֶנָּה לּוֹ לְאִשָּֽׁה: טז אִם־מָאֵן יְמָאֵן אָבִיהָ לְתִתָּהּ לוֹ כֶּסֶף יִשְׁקֹל כְּמֹהַר הַבְּתוּלֹֽת: ס
23 Law against witchcraft
יז מְכַשֵּׁפָה לֹא תְחַיֶּֽה:
24 Law firbidding sexual relations with an animal
יח כָּל־שֹׁכֵב עִם־בְּהֵמָה מוֹת יוּמָֽת: ס
25 Law regarding pagan sacrifices
יט זֹבֵחַ לָֽאֱלֹהִים יָֽחֳרָם בִּלְתִּי לַֽיהוָֹה לְבַדּֽוֹ:
Law against cheating or oppressing aliens, widows or orphans 26
כ וְגֵר לֹֽא־תוֹנֶה וְלֹא תִלְחָצֶנּוּ כִּֽי־גֵרִים הֱיִיתֶם בְּאֶרֶץ מִצְרָֽיִם: כא כָּל־אַלְמָנָה וְיָתוֹם לֹא תְעַנּֽוּן: כב אִם־עַנֵּה תְעַנֶּה אֹתוֹ כִּי אִם־צָעֹק יִצְעַק אֵלַי שָׁמֹעַ אֶשְׁמַע צַֽעֲקָתֽוֹ: כג וְחָרָה אַפִּי וְהָֽרַגְתִּי אֶתְכֶם בֶּחָרֶב וְהָיוּ נְשֵׁיכֶם אַלְמָנוֹת וּבְנֵיכֶם יְתֹמִֽים: פ
27 Law regarding lending money
כד אִם־כֶּסֶף תַּלְוֶה אֶת־עַמִּי אֶת־הֶֽעָנִי עִמָּךְ לֹא־תִֽהְיֶה לוֹ כְּנֹשֶׁה לֹֽא־תְשִׂימוּן עָלָיו נֶֽשֶׁךְ: כה אִם־חָבֹל תַּחְבֹּל שַׂלְמַת רֵעֶךָ עַד־בֹּא הַשֶּׁמֶשׁ תְּשִׁיבֶנּוּ לֽוֹ: כו כִּי הִוא כְסוּתֹה לְבַדָּהּ הִוא שִׂמְלָתוֹ לְעֹרוֹ בַּמֶּה יִשְׁכָּב וְהָיָה כִּֽי־יִצְעַק אֵלַי וְשָֽׁמַעְתִּי כִּֽי־חַנּוּן אָֽנִי: ס חצי הספר בפסוקים [רביעי]
28 Law against cursing a prophet or chieftain
כז אֱלֹהִים לֹא תְקַלֵּל וְנָשִׂיא בְעַמְּךָ לֹא תָאֹֽר:
Law against delay of firstborn appropriation to god 29
כח מְלֵאָֽתְךָ וְדִמְעֲךָ לֹא תְאַחֵר בְּכוֹר בָּנֶיךָ תִּתֶּן־לִֽי: כט כֵּן־תַּֽעֲשֶׂה לְשֹֽׁרְךָ לְצֹאנֶךָ שִׁבְעַת יָמִים יִהְיֶה עִם־אִמּוֹ בַּיּוֹם הַשְּׁמִינִי תִּתְּנוֹ־לִֽי:
30 Law against eating prey meat
ל וְאַנְשֵׁי־קֹדֶשׁ תִּהְיוּן לִי וּבָשָׂר בַּשָּׂדֶה טְרֵפָה לֹא תֹאכֵלוּ לַכֶּלֶב תַּשְׁלִכוּן אֹתֽוֹ: ס
פרק כג
31 Law against being a malicious witness
א לֹא תִשָּׂא שֵׁמַע שָׁוְא אַל־תָּשֶׁת יָֽדְךָ עִם־רָשָׁע לִֽהְיֹת עֵד חָמָֽס: ב לֹא־תִֽהְיֶה אַֽחֲרֵֽי־רַבִּים לְרָעֹת וְלֹא־תַֽעֲנֶה עַל־רִב לִנְטֹת אַֽחֲרֵי רַבִּים לְהַטֹּֽת: ג וְדָל לֹא תֶהְדַּר בְּרִיבֽוֹ: ס
32 Law requiring return of an enemy’s stray animal
ד כִּי תִפְגַּע שׁוֹר אֹֽיִבְךָ אוֹ חֲמֹרוֹ תֹּעֶה הָשֵׁב תְּשִׁיבֶנּוּ לֽוֹ: ס ה כִּֽי־תִרְאֶה חֲמוֹר שֹׂנַֽאֲךָ רֹבֵץ תַּחַת מַשָּׂאוֹ וְחָֽדַלְתָּ מֵֽעֲזֹב לוֹ עָזֹב תַּֽעֲזֹב עִמּֽוֹ: ס [חמישי]
33 Law against judicial injustices
ו לֹא תַטֶּה מִשְׁפַּט אֶבְיֹֽנְךָ בְּרִיבֽוֹ: ז מִדְּבַר־שֶׁקֶר תִּרְחָק וְנָקִי וְצַדִּיק אַֽל־תַּֽהֲרֹג כִּי לֹֽא־אַצְדִּיק רָשָֽׁע: ח וְשֹׁחַד לֹא תִקָּח כִּי הַשֹּׁחַד יְעַוֵּר פִּקְחִים וִֽיסַלֵּף דִּבְרֵי צַדִּיקִֽים: ט וְגֵר לֹא תִלְחָץ וְאַתֶּם יְדַעְתֶּם אֶת־נֶפֶשׁ הַגֵּר כִּֽי־גֵרִים הֱיִיתֶם בְּאֶרֶץ מִצְרָֽיִם:
34 Law of Shemitah-year field abandoment
י וְשֵׁשׁ שָׁנִים תִּזְרַע אֶת־אַרְצֶךָ וְאָֽסַפְתָּ אֶת־תְּבֽוּאָתָֽהּ: יא וְהַשְּׁבִיעִת תִּשְׁמְטֶנָּה וּנְטַשְׁתָּהּ וְאָֽכְלוּ אֶבְיֹנֵי עַמֶּךָ וְיִתְרָם תֹּאכַל חַיַּת הַשָּׂדֶה כֵּן־תַּֽעֲשֶׂה לְכַרְמְךָ לְזֵיתֶֽךָ:
35 Law requiring rest on Sabbath
יב שֵׁשֶׁת יָמִים תַּֽעֲשֶׂה מַֽעֲשֶׂיךָ וּבַיּוֹם הַשְּׁבִיעִי תִּשְׁבֹּת לְמַעַן יָנוּחַ שֽׁוֹרְךָ וַֽחֲמֹרֶךָ וְיִנָּפֵשׁ בֶּן־אֲמָֽתְךָ וְהַגֵּֽר:
יג וּבְכֹל אֲשֶׁר־אָמַרְתִּי אֲלֵיכֶם תִּשָּׁמֵרוּ וְשֵׁם אֱלֹהִים אֲחֵרִים לֹא תַזְכִּירוּ לֹא יִשָּׁמַע עַל־פִּֽיךָ:
36 Law requiring observance of three annual festivals
יד שָׁלֹשׁ רְגָלִים תָּחֹג לִי בַּשָּׁנָֽה: טו אֶת־חַג הַמַּצּוֹת תִּשְׁמֹר שִׁבְעַת יָמִים תֹּאכַל מַצּוֹת כַּֽאֲשֶׁר צִוִּיתִךָ לְמוֹעֵד חֹדֶשׁ הָֽאָבִיב כִּי־בוֹ יָצָאתָ מִמִּצְרָיִם וְלֹא־יֵֽרָאוּ פָנַי רֵיקָֽם: טז וְחַג הַקָּצִיר בִּכּוּרֵי מַֽעֲשֶׂיךָ אֲשֶׁר תִּזְרַע בַּשָּׂדֶה וְחַג הָֽאָסִף בְּצֵאת הַשָּׁנָה בְּאָסְפְּךָ אֶֽת־מַֽעֲשֶׂיךָ מִן־הַשָּׂדֶֽה: יז שָׁלֹשׁ פְּעָמִים בַּשָּׁנָה יֵֽרָאֶה כָּל־זְכוּרְךָ אֶל־פְּנֵי הָֽאָדֹן יְהוָֹֽה:
Law forbidding eating a sacrifice with unleavened bread 37
יח לֹֽא־תִזְבַּח עַל־חָמֵץ דַּם־זִבְחִי
38 Law against leaving over a sacrifice until the morning
וְלֹֽא־יָלִין חֵֽלֶב־חַגִּי עַד־בֹּֽקֶר:
39 Law requiring eating firstfruits at the temple
יט רֵאשִׁית בִּכּוּרֵי אַדְמָתְךָ תָּבִיא בֵּית יְהוָֹה אֱלֹהֶיךָ
40 Law against eating an animal and its mother simultaneously
לֹֽא־תְבַשֵּׁל גְּדִי בַּֽחֲלֵב אִמּֽוֹ: פ [ששי]
כ הִנֵּה אָֽנֹכִי שֹׁלֵחַ מַלְאָךְ לְפָנֶיךָ לִשְׁמָרְךָ בַּדָּרֶךְ וְלַֽהֲבִיאֲךָ אֶל־הַמָּקוֹם אֲשֶׁר הֲכִנֹֽתִי: כא הִשָּׁמֶר מִפָּנָיו וּשְׁמַע בְּקֹלוֹ אַל־תַּמֵּר בּוֹ כִּי לֹא יִשָּׂא לְפִשְׁעֲכֶם כִּי שְׁמִי בְּקִרְבּֽוֹ: כב כִּי אִם־שָׁמוֹעַ תִּשְׁמַע בְּקֹלוֹ וְעָשִׂיתָ כֹּל אֲשֶׁר אֲדַבֵּר וְאָֽיַבְתִּי אֶת־אֹיְבֶיךָ וְצַרְתִּי אֶת־צֹֽרְרֶֽיךָ: כג כִּֽי־יֵלֵךְ מַלְאָכִי לְפָנֶיךָ וֶֽהֱבִֽיאֲךָ אֶל־הָֽאֱמֹרִי וְהַחִתִּי וְהַפְּרִזִּי וְהַֽכְּנַֽעֲנִי הַֽחִוִּי וְהַיְבוּסִי וְהִכְחַדְתִּֽיו:
Law against prostration to canaanite gods 41
כד לֹֽא־תִשְׁתַּֽחֲוֶה לֵאלֹֽהֵיהֶם וְלֹא תָֽעָבְדֵם
42 Law against immitating canaanite religious practices
וְלֹא תַֽעֲשֶׂה כְּמַֽעֲשֵׂיהֶם כִּי הָרֵס תְּהָרְסֵם וְשַׁבֵּר תְּשַׁבֵּר מַצֵּבֹֽתֵיהֶֽם:
כה וַֽעֲבַדְתֶּם אֵת יְהוָֹה אֱלֹֽהֵיכֶם וּבֵרַךְ אֶֽת־לַחְמְךָ וְאֶת־מֵימֶיךָ וַֽהֲסִרֹתִי מַֽחֲלָה מִקִּרְבֶּֽךָ: ס [שביעי] כו לֹא תִֽהְיֶה מְשַׁכֵּלָה וַֽעֲקָרָה בְּאַרְצֶךָ אֶת־מִסְפַּר יָמֶיךָ אֲמַלֵּֽא: כז אֶת־אֵֽימָתִי אֲשַׁלַּח לְפָנֶיךָ וְהַמֹּתִי אֶת־כָּל־הָעָם אֲשֶׁר תָּבֹא בָּהֶם וְנָֽתַתִּי אֶת־כָּל־אֹֽיְבֶיךָ אֵלֶיךָ עֹֽרֶף: כח וְשָֽׁלַחְתִּי אֶת־הַצִּרְעָה לְפָנֶיךָ וְגֵֽרְשָׁה אֶת־הַֽחִוִּי אֶת־הַֽכְּנַֽעֲנִי וְאֶת־הַֽחִתִּי מִלְּפָנֶֽיךָ: כט לֹא אֲגָֽרְשֶׁנּוּ מִפָּנֶיךָ בְּשָׁנָה אֶחָת פֶּן־תִּֽהְיֶה הָאָרֶץ שְׁמָמָה וְרַבָּה עָלֶיךָ חַיַּת הַשָּׂדֶֽה: ל מְעַט מְעַט אֲגָֽרְשֶׁנּוּ מִפָּנֶיךָ עַד אֲשֶׁר תִּפְרֶה וְנָֽחַלְתָּ אֶת־הָאָֽרֶץ: לא וְשַׁתִּי אֶת־גְּבֻֽלְךָ מִיַּם־סוּף וְעַד־יָם פְּלִשְׁתִּים וּמִמִּדְבָּר עַד־הַנָּהָר כִּי אֶתֵּן בְּיֶדְכֶם אֵת יֹֽשְׁבֵי הָאָרֶץ וְגֵֽרַשְׁתָּמוֹ מִפָּנֶֽיךָ: לב לֹֽא־תִכְרֹת לָהֶם וְלֵאלֹֽהֵיהֶם בְּרִֽית: לג לֹא יֵֽשְׁבוּ בְּאַרְצְךָ פֶּן־יַֽחֲטִיאוּ אֹֽתְךָ לִי כִּי תַֽעֲבֹד אֶת־אֱלֹהֵיהֶם כִּי־יִֽהְיֶה לְךָ לְמוֹקֵֽשׁ: פ
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Laws on worship
1 Law against making golden or silver idols
2 Law forbidding use of chiseled stone for yahwehעs altar
3 Law forbidding ascent to yahweh altar in steps
Laws on slaves
4 Law regarding treatment of Hebrew man-servants
5 Law regarding treatment of Hebrew maid-servants
Transgressions involving capital punishment
6 Law regarding someone who commits murder
7 Law regarding someone who hits his father
8 Law regarding someone who commits kidnapping
9 Law regarding someone who curses his father
Laws regarding person-to-person injury
10 Law regarding bodily injury caused in a quarrel
11 Law regarding someone who kills his servant
12 Law regarding seomone who causes injury to an unborn fetus
13 Law regarding someone who injures his servant
Laws regarding property that causes injury or damage
14 Law regarding an ox that gores a peron
15 Law regarding a pit that causes damage to animals
16 Law regarding an ox that injures another ox
Laws regarding a person who causes damage
17 Law regarding someone who steals sheep or cattle
18 Law regarding someone who causes fire damage to property
19 Law regarding a guard of silver or vessels 91
20 Law regarding a guard of livestock
21 Law regarding property damage caused by a borrower
Laws on day-to-day appropriate civil behavior (not punishable)
22 Law regarding someone who seduces a virgin
23 Law against witchcraft
24 Law forbidding sexual relations with an animal
25 Law regarding someone who offers sacrifices to other gods
26 Law against cheating or oppressing aliens, widows or orphans
27 Law regarding lending money
28 Law against cursing a prophet or chieftain
29 Law against delay of firstborn appropriation to God
30 Law against eating prey meat
31 Law against being a malicious witness
32 Law requiring return of an enemy’s stray animal
33 Law against judicial injustices
Law on resting times
34 Law of Shemitah-year field abandoment
35 Law requiring rest on Sabbath
Law on feasts and sacrifices at the temple
36 Law requiring observance of three annual festivals
37 Law forbidding eating a sacrifice with unleavened bread
38 Law against leaving over a sacrifice until the morning
39 Law requiring eating firstfruits at the temple
40 Law against eating an animal and its mother simultaneously
Law regarding deity worship
41 Law against prostration to canaanite gods
42 Law against immitating canaanite religious practices
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1 Law against making golden or silver idols
פרק כא
יט וַיֹּאמֶר יְהוָֹה אֶל־מֹשֶׁה כֹּה תֹאמַר אֶל־בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל אַתֶּם רְאִיתֶם כִּי מִן־הַשָּׁמַיִם דִּבַּרְתִּי עִמָּכֶֽם:
כ לֹא תַֽעֲשׂוּן אִתִּי אֱלֹהֵי כֶסֶף וֵֽאלֹהֵי זָהָב לֹא תַֽעֲשׂוּ לָכֶֽם:
2 Law forbidding use of chiseled stone for yahweh’s altar
כא מִזְבַּח אֲדָמָה תַּֽעֲשֶׂה־לִּי וְזָֽבַחְתָּ עָלָיו אֶת־עֹֽלֹתֶיךָ וְאֶת־שְׁלָמֶיךָ אֶת־צֹֽאנְךָ וְאֶת־בְּקָרֶךָ בְּכָל־הַמָּקוֹם אֲשֶׁר אַזְכִּיר אֶת־שְׁמִי אָבוֹא אֵלֶיךָ וּבֵֽרַכְתִּֽיךָ: כב וְאִם־מִזְבַּח אֲבָנִים תַּֽעֲשֶׂה־לִּי לֹֽא־תִבְנֶה אֶתְהֶן גָּזִית כִּי חַרְבְּךָ הֵנַפְתָּ עָלֶיהָ וַֽתְּחַֽלְלֶֽהָ:
3 Law forbidding ascent to yahweh altar in steps
כג וְלֹא־תַֽעֲלֶה בְמַֽעֲלֹת עַל־מִזְבְּחִי אֲשֶׁר לֹֽא־תִגָּלֶה עֶרְוָֽתְךָ עָלָֽיו: פ פ פ
[פרשת משפטים] א וְאֵלֶּה הַמִּשְׁפָּטִים אֲשֶׁר תָּשִׂים לִפְנֵיהֶֽם:
4 Law regarding treatment of Hebrew man-servants
ב כִּי תִקְנֶה עֶבֶד עִבְרִי שֵׁשׁ שָׁנִים יַֽעֲבֹד וּבַשְּׁבִעִת יֵצֵא לַֽחָפְשִׁי חִנָּֽם: ג אִם־בְּגַפּוֹ יָבֹא בְּגַפּוֹ יֵצֵא אִם־בַּעַל אִשָּׁה הוּא וְיָֽצְאָה אִשְׁתּוֹ עִמּֽוֹ: ד אִם־אֲדֹנָיו יִתֶּן־לוֹ אִשָּׁה וְיָֽלְדָה־לּוֹ בָנִים אוֹ בָנוֹת הָֽאִשָּׁה וִֽילָדֶיהָ תִּֽהְיֶה לַֽאדֹנֶיהָ וְהוּא יֵצֵא בְגַפּֽוֹ: ה וְאִם־אָמֹר יֹאמַר הָעֶבֶד אָהַבְתִּי אֶת־אֲדֹנִי אֶת־אִשְׁתִּי וְאֶת־בָּנָי לֹא אֵצֵא חָפְשִֽׁי: ו וְהִגִּישׁוֹ אֲדֹנָיו אֶל־הָאֱלֹהִים וְהִגִּישׁוֹ אֶל־הַדֶּלֶת אוֹ אֶל־הַמְּזוּזָה וְרָצַע אֲדֹנָיו אֶת־אָזְנוֹ בַּמַּרְצֵעַ וַֽעֲבָדוֹ לְעֹלָֽם: ס
5 Law regarding treatment of Hebrew maid-servants
ז וְכִֽי־יִמְכֹּר אִישׁ אֶת־בִּתּוֹ לְאָמָה לֹא תֵצֵא כְּצֵאת הָֽעֲבָדִֽים: ח אִם־רָעָה בְּעֵינֵי אֲדֹנֶיהָ אֲשֶׁר־לֹא [לוֹ] יְעָדָהּ וְהֶפְדָּהּ לְעַם נָכְרִי לֹֽא־יִמְשֹׁל לְמָכְרָהּ בְּבִגְדוֹ־בָֽהּ: ט וְאִם־לִבְנוֹ יִֽיעָדֶנָּה כְּמִשְׁפַּט הַבָּנוֹת יַֽעֲשֶׂה־לָּֽהּ: י אִם־אַחֶרֶת יִֽקַּֽח־לוֹ שְׁאֵרָהּ כְּסוּתָהּ וְעֹֽנָתָהּ לֹא יִגְרָֽע: יא וְאִם־שְׁלָשׁ־אֵלֶּה לֹא יַֽעֲשֶׂה לָהּ וְיָֽצְאָה חִנָּם אֵין כָּֽסֶף: ס
6 Law regarding someone who commits murder
יב מַכֵּה אִישׁ וָמֵת מוֹת יוּמָֽת: יג וַֽאֲשֶׁר לֹא צָדָה וְהָֽאֱלֹהִים אִנָּה לְיָדוֹ וְשַׂמְתִּי לְךָ מָקוֹם אֲשֶׁר יָנוּס שָֽׁמָּה: ס יד וְכִֽי־יָזִד אִישׁ עַל־רֵעֵהוּ לְהָרְגוֹ בְעָרְמָה מֵעִם מִזְבְּחִי תִּקָּחֶנּוּ לָמֽוּת: ס
7 Law regarding someone who hits his father
טו וּמַכֵּה אָבִיו וְאִמּוֹ מוֹת יוּמָֽת: ס
8 Law regarding someone who commits kidnapping
טז וְגֹנֵב אִישׁ וּמְכָרוֹ וְנִמְצָא בְיָדוֹ מוֹת יוּמָֽת: ס
9 Law regarding someone who curses his father
יז וּמְקַלֵּל אָבִיו וְאִמּוֹ מוֹת יוּמָֽת: ס
10 Law regarding bodily injury caused in a quarrel
יח וְכִֽי־יְרִיבֻן אֲנָשִׁים וְהִכָּה־אִישׁ אֶת־רֵעֵהוּ בְּאֶבֶן אוֹ בְאֶגְרֹף וְלֹא יָמוּת וְנָפַל לְמִשְׁכָּֽב: יט אִם־יָקוּם וְהִתְהַלֵּךְ בַּחוּץ עַל־מִשְׁעַנְתּוֹ וְנִקָּה הַמַּכֶּה רַק שִׁבְתּוֹ יִתֵּן וְרַפֹּא יְרַפֵּֽא: ס [שני
]
11 Law regarding someone who kills his servant 11
כ וְכִֽי־יַכֶּה אִישׁ אֶת־עַבְדּוֹ אוֹ אֶת־אֲמָתוֹ בַּשֵּׁבֶט וּמֵת תַּחַת יָדוֹ נָקֹם יִנָּקֵֽם: כא אַךְ אִם־יוֹם אוֹ יוֹמַיִם יַֽעֲמֹד לֹא יֻקַּם כִּי כַסְפּוֹ הֽוּא: ס
12 Law regarding seomone who causes injury to an unborn fetus
כב וְכִֽי־יִנָּצוּ אֲנָשִׁים וְנָגְפוּ אִשָּׁה הָרָה וְיָֽצְאוּ יְלָדֶיהָ וְלֹא יִֽהְיֶה אָסוֹן עָנוֹשׁ יֵֽעָנֵשׁ כַּֽאֲשֶׁר יָשִׁית עָלָיו בַּעַל הָֽאִשָּׁה וְנָתַן בִּפְלִלִֽים: כג וְאִם־אָסוֹן יִֽהְיֶה וְנָֽתַתָּה נֶפֶשׁ תַּחַת נָֽפֶשׁ: כד עַיִן תַּחַת עַיִן שֵׁן תַּחַת שֵׁן יָד תַּחַת יָד רֶגֶל תַּחַת רָֽגֶל: כה כְּוִיָּה תַּחַת כְּוִיָּה פֶּצַע תַּחַת פָּצַע חַבּוּרָה תַּחַת חַבּוּרָֽה: ס
13 Law regarding someone who injures his servant
כו וְכִֽי־יַכֶּה אִישׁ אֶת־עֵין עַבְדּוֹ אֽוֹ־אֶת־עֵין אֲמָתוֹ וְשִֽׁחֲתָהּ לַֽחָפְשִׁי יְשַׁלְּחֶנּוּ תַּחַת עֵינֽוֹ: כז וְאִם־שֵׁן עַבְדּוֹ אוֹ־שֵׁן אֲמָתוֹ יַפִּיל לַֽחָפְשִׁי יְשַׁלְּחֶנּוּ תַּחַת שִׁנּֽוֹ: פ
14 Law regarding an ox that gores a peron
כח וְכִֽי־יִגַּח שׁוֹר אֶת־אִישׁ אוֹ אֶת־אִשָּׁה וָמֵת סָקוֹל יִסָּקֵל הַשּׁוֹר וְלֹא יֵֽאָכֵל אֶת־בְּשָׂרוֹ וּבַעַל הַשּׁוֹר נָקִֽי: כט וְאִם שׁוֹר נַגָּח הוּא מִתְּמֹל שִׁלְשֹׁם וְהוּעַד בִּבְעָלָיו וְלֹא יִשְׁמְרֶנּוּ וְהֵמִית אִישׁ אוֹ אִשָּׁה הַשּׁוֹר יִסָּקֵל וְגַם־בְּעָלָיו יוּמָֽת: ל אִם־כֹּפֶר יוּשַׁת עָלָיו וְנָתַן פִּדְיֹן נַפְשׁוֹ כְּכֹל אֲשֶׁר־יוּשַׁת עָלָֽיו: לא אוֹ־בֵן יִגָּח אוֹ־בַת יִגָּח כַּמִּשְׁפָּט הַזֶּה יֵעָשֶׂה לּֽוֹ: לב אִם־עֶבֶד יִגַּח הַשּׁוֹר אוֹ אָמָה כֶּסֶף שְׁלֹשִׁים שְׁקָלִים יִתֵּן לַֽאדֹנָיו וְהַשּׁוֹר יִסָּקֵֽל: ס
15 Law regarding a pit that causes damage to animals
לג וְכִֽי־יִפְתַּח אִישׁ בּוֹר אוֹ כִּֽי־יִכְרֶה אִישׁ בֹּר וְלֹא יְכַסֶּנּוּ וְנָֽפַל־שָׁמָּה שּׁוֹר אוֹ חֲמֽוֹר: לד בַּעַל הַבּוֹר יְשַׁלֵּם כֶּסֶף יָשִׁיב לִבְעָלָיו וְהַמֵּת יִֽהְיֶה־לּֽוֹ: ס
16 Law regarding an ox that injures another ox
לה וְכִֽי־יִגֹּף שׁוֹר־אִישׁ אֶת־שׁוֹר רֵעֵהוּ וָמֵת וּמָכְרוּ אֶת־הַשּׁוֹר הַחַי וְחָצוּ אֶת־כַּסְפּוֹ וְגַם אֶת־הַמֵּת יֶֽחֱצֽוּן: לו אוֹ נוֹדַע כִּי שׁוֹר נַגָּח הוּא מִתְּמוֹל שִׁלְשֹׁם וְלֹא יִשְׁמְרֶנּוּ בְּעָלָיו שַׁלֵּם יְשַׁלֵּם שׁוֹר תַּחַת הַשּׁוֹר וְהַמֵּת יִֽהְיֶה־לּֽוֹ: ס
17 Law regarding someone who steals sheep or cattle
לז כִּי יִגְנֹֽב־אִישׁ שׁוֹר אוֹ־שֶׂה וּטְבָחוֹ אוֹ מְכָרוֹ חֲמִשָּׁה בָקָר יְשַׁלֵּם תַּחַת הַשּׁוֹר וְאַרְבַּע־צֹאן תַּחַת הַשֶּֽׂה:
פרק כב
א אִם־בַּמַּחְתֶּרֶת יִמָּצֵא הַגַּנָּב וְהֻכָּה וָמֵת אֵין לוֹ דָּמִֽים: ב אִם־זָֽרְחָה הַשֶּׁמֶשׁ עָלָיו דָּמִים לוֹ שַׁלֵּם יְשַׁלֵּם אִם־אֵין לוֹ וְנִמְכַּר בִּגְנֵֽבָתֽוֹ: ג אִם־הִמָּצֵא תִמָּצֵא בְיָדוֹ הַגְּנֵבָה מִשּׁוֹר עַד־חֲמוֹר עַד־שֶׂה חַיִּים שְׁנַיִם יְשַׁלֵּֽם: ס [שלישי]
18 Law regarding someone who causes fire damage to property
ד כִּי יַבְעֶר־אִישׁ שָׂדֶה אוֹ־כֶרֶם וְשִׁלַּח אֶת־בְּעִירֹה וּבִעֵר בִּשְׂדֵה אַחֵר מֵיטַב שָׂדֵהוּ וּמֵיטַב כַּרְמוֹ יְשַׁלֵּֽם: ס ה כִּֽי־תֵצֵא אֵשׁ וּמָֽצְאָה קֹצִים וְנֶֽאֱכַל גָּדִישׁ אוֹ הַקָּמָה אוֹ הַשָּׂדֶה שַׁלֵּם יְשַׁלֵּם הַמַּבְעִר אֶת־הַבְּעֵרָֽה: ס
Law regarding a guard of silver or vessels 19
ו כִּֽי־יִתֵּן אִישׁ אֶל־רֵעֵהוּ כֶּסֶף אֽוֹ־כֵלִים לִשְׁמֹר וְגֻנַּב מִבֵּית הָאִישׁ אִם־יִמָּצֵא הַגַּנָּב יְשַׁלֵּם שְׁנָֽיִם: ז אִם־לֹא יִמָּצֵא הַגַּנָּב וְנִקְרַב בַּֽעַל־הַבַּיִת אֶל־הָֽאֱלֹהִים אִם־לֹא שָׁלַח יָדוֹ בִּמְלֶאכֶת רֵעֵֽהוּ: ח עַֽל־כָּל־דְּבַר־פֶּשַׁע עַל־שׁוֹר עַל־חֲמוֹר עַל־שֶׂה עַל־שַׂלְמָה עַל־כָּל־אֲבֵדָה אֲשֶׁר יֹאמַר כִּי־הוּא זֶה עַד הָֽאֱלֹהִים יָבֹא דְּבַר־שְׁנֵיהֶם אֲשֶׁר יַרְשִׁיעֻן אֱלֹהִים יְשַׁלֵּם שְׁנַיִם לְרֵעֵֽהוּ: ס
20 Law regarding a guard of livestock
ט כִּֽי־יִתֵּן אִישׁ אֶל־רֵעֵהוּ חֲמוֹר אוֹ־שׁוֹר אוֹ־שֶׂה וְכָל־בְּהֵמָה לִשְׁמֹר וּמֵת אֽוֹ־נִשְׁבַּר אֽוֹ־נִשְׁבָּה אֵין רֹאֶֽה: י שְׁבֻעַת יְהֹוָה תִּֽהְיֶה בֵּין שְׁנֵיהֶם אִם־לֹא שָׁלַח יָדוֹ בִּמְלֶאכֶת רֵעֵהוּ וְלָקַח בְּעָלָיו וְלֹא יְשַׁלֵּֽם: יא וְאִם־גָּנֹב יִגָּנֵב מֵֽעִמּוֹ יְשַׁלֵּם לִבְעָלָֽיו: יב אִם־טָרֹף יִטָּרֵף יְבִאֵהוּ עֵד הַטְּרֵפָה לֹא יְשַׁלֵּֽם: פ
Law regarding property damage caused by a borrower 21
יג וְכִֽי־יִשְׁאַל אִישׁ מֵעִם רֵעֵהוּ וְנִשְׁבַּר אוֹ־מֵת בְּעָלָיו אֵין־עִמּוֹ שַׁלֵּם יְשַׁלֵּֽם: יד אִם־בְּעָלָיו עִמּוֹ לֹא יְשַׁלֵּם אִם־שָׂכִיר הוּא בָּא בִּשְׂכָרֽוֹ: ס
22 Law regarding someone who seduces a virgin
טו וְכִֽי־יְפַתֶּה אִישׁ בְּתוּלָה אֲשֶׁר לֹֽא־אֹרָשָׂה וְשָׁכַב עִמָּהּ מָהֹר יִמְהָרֶנָּה לּוֹ לְאִשָּֽׁה: טז אִם־מָאֵן יְמָאֵן אָבִיהָ לְתִתָּהּ לוֹ כֶּסֶף יִשְׁקֹל כְּמֹהַר הַבְּתוּלֹֽת: ס
23 Law against witchcraft
יז מְכַשֵּׁפָה לֹא תְחַיֶּֽה:
24 Law firbidding sexual relations with an animal
יח כָּל־שֹׁכֵב עִם־בְּהֵמָה מוֹת יוּמָֽת: ס
25 Law regarding pagan sacrifices
יט זֹבֵחַ לָֽאֱלֹהִים יָֽחֳרָם בִּלְתִּי לַֽיהוָֹה לְבַדּֽוֹ:
Law against cheating or oppressing aliens, widows or orphans 26
כ וְגֵר לֹֽא־תוֹנֶה וְלֹא תִלְחָצֶנּוּ כִּֽי־גֵרִים הֱיִיתֶם בְּאֶרֶץ מִצְרָֽיִם: כא כָּל־אַלְמָנָה וְיָתוֹם לֹא תְעַנּֽוּן: כב אִם־עַנֵּה תְעַנֶּה אֹתוֹ כִּי אִם־צָעֹק יִצְעַק אֵלַי שָׁמֹעַ אֶשְׁמַע צַֽעֲקָתֽוֹ: כג וְחָרָה אַפִּי וְהָֽרַגְתִּי אֶתְכֶם בֶּחָרֶב וְהָיוּ נְשֵׁיכֶם אַלְמָנוֹת וּבְנֵיכֶם יְתֹמִֽים: פ
27 Law regarding lending money
כד אִם־כֶּסֶף תַּלְוֶה אֶת־עַמִּי אֶת־הֶֽעָנִי עִמָּךְ לֹא־תִֽהְיֶה לוֹ כְּנֹשֶׁה לֹֽא־תְשִׂימוּן עָלָיו נֶֽשֶׁךְ: כה אִם־חָבֹל תַּחְבֹּל שַׂלְמַת רֵעֶךָ עַד־בֹּא הַשֶּׁמֶשׁ תְּשִׁיבֶנּוּ לֽוֹ: כו כִּי הִוא כְסוּתֹה לְבַדָּהּ הִוא שִׂמְלָתוֹ לְעֹרוֹ בַּמֶּה יִשְׁכָּב וְהָיָה כִּֽי־יִצְעַק אֵלַי וְשָֽׁמַעְתִּי כִּֽי־חַנּוּן אָֽנִי: ס חצי הספר בפסוקים [רביעי]
28 Law against cursing a prophet or chieftain
כז אֱלֹהִים לֹא תְקַלֵּל וְנָשִׂיא בְעַמְּךָ לֹא תָאֹֽר:
Law against delay of firstborn appropriation to god 29
כח מְלֵאָֽתְךָ וְדִמְעֲךָ לֹא תְאַחֵר בְּכוֹר בָּנֶיךָ תִּתֶּן־לִֽי: כט כֵּן־תַּֽעֲשֶׂה לְשֹֽׁרְךָ לְצֹאנֶךָ שִׁבְעַת יָמִים יִהְיֶה עִם־אִמּוֹ בַּיּוֹם הַשְּׁמִינִי תִּתְּנוֹ־לִֽי:
30 Law against eating prey meat
ל וְאַנְשֵׁי־קֹדֶשׁ תִּהְיוּן לִי וּבָשָׂר בַּשָּׂדֶה טְרֵפָה לֹא תֹאכֵלוּ לַכֶּלֶב תַּשְׁלִכוּן אֹתֽוֹ: ס
פרק כג
31 Law against being a malicious witness
א לֹא תִשָּׂא שֵׁמַע שָׁוְא אַל־תָּשֶׁת יָֽדְךָ עִם־רָשָׁע לִֽהְיֹת עֵד חָמָֽס: ב לֹא־תִֽהְיֶה אַֽחֲרֵֽי־רַבִּים לְרָעֹת וְלֹא־תַֽעֲנֶה עַל־רִב לִנְטֹת אַֽחֲרֵי רַבִּים לְהַטֹּֽת: ג וְדָל לֹא תֶהְדַּר בְּרִיבֽוֹ: ס
32 Law requiring return of an enemy’s stray animal
ד כִּי תִפְגַּע שׁוֹר אֹֽיִבְךָ אוֹ חֲמֹרוֹ תֹּעֶה הָשֵׁב תְּשִׁיבֶנּוּ לֽוֹ: ס ה כִּֽי־תִרְאֶה חֲמוֹר שֹׂנַֽאֲךָ רֹבֵץ תַּחַת מַשָּׂאוֹ וְחָֽדַלְתָּ מֵֽעֲזֹב לוֹ עָזֹב תַּֽעֲזֹב עִמּֽוֹ: ס [חמישי]
33 Law against judicial injustices
ו לֹא תַטֶּה מִשְׁפַּט אֶבְיֹֽנְךָ בְּרִיבֽוֹ: ז מִדְּבַר־שֶׁקֶר תִּרְחָק וְנָקִי וְצַדִּיק אַֽל־תַּֽהֲרֹג כִּי לֹֽא־אַצְדִּיק רָשָֽׁע: ח וְשֹׁחַד לֹא תִקָּח כִּי הַשֹּׁחַד יְעַוֵּר פִּקְחִים וִֽיסַלֵּף דִּבְרֵי צַדִּיקִֽים: ט וְגֵר לֹא תִלְחָץ וְאַתֶּם יְדַעְתֶּם אֶת־נֶפֶשׁ הַגֵּר כִּֽי־גֵרִים הֱיִיתֶם בְּאֶרֶץ מִצְרָֽיִם:
34 Law of Shemitah-year field abandoment
י וְשֵׁשׁ שָׁנִים תִּזְרַע אֶת־אַרְצֶךָ וְאָֽסַפְתָּ אֶת־תְּבֽוּאָתָֽהּ: יא וְהַשְּׁבִיעִת תִּשְׁמְטֶנָּה וּנְטַשְׁתָּהּ וְאָֽכְלוּ אֶבְיֹנֵי עַמֶּךָ וְיִתְרָם תֹּאכַל חַיַּת הַשָּׂדֶה כֵּן־תַּֽעֲשֶׂה לְכַרְמְךָ לְזֵיתֶֽךָ:
35 Law requiring rest on Sabbath
יב שֵׁשֶׁת יָמִים תַּֽעֲשֶׂה מַֽעֲשֶׂיךָ וּבַיּוֹם הַשְּׁבִיעִי תִּשְׁבֹּת לְמַעַן יָנוּחַ שֽׁוֹרְךָ וַֽחֲמֹרֶךָ וְיִנָּפֵשׁ בֶּן־אֲמָֽתְךָ וְהַגֵּֽר:
יג וּבְכֹל אֲשֶׁר־אָמַרְתִּי אֲלֵיכֶם תִּשָּׁמֵרוּ וְשֵׁם אֱלֹהִים אֲחֵרִים לֹא תַזְכִּירוּ לֹא יִשָּׁמַע עַל־פִּֽיךָ:
36 Law requiring observance of three annual festivals
יד שָׁלֹשׁ רְגָלִים תָּחֹג לִי בַּשָּׁנָֽה: טו אֶת־חַג הַמַּצּוֹת תִּשְׁמֹר שִׁבְעַת יָמִים תֹּאכַל מַצּוֹת כַּֽאֲשֶׁר צִוִּיתִךָ לְמוֹעֵד חֹדֶשׁ הָֽאָבִיב כִּי־בוֹ יָצָאתָ מִמִּצְרָיִם וְלֹא־יֵֽרָאוּ פָנַי רֵיקָֽם: טז וְחַג הַקָּצִיר בִּכּוּרֵי מַֽעֲשֶׂיךָ אֲשֶׁר תִּזְרַע בַּשָּׂדֶה וְחַג הָֽאָסִף בְּצֵאת הַשָּׁנָה בְּאָסְפְּךָ אֶֽת־מַֽעֲשֶׂיךָ מִן־הַשָּׂדֶֽה: יז שָׁלֹשׁ פְּעָמִים בַּשָּׁנָה יֵֽרָאֶה כָּל־זְכוּרְךָ אֶל־פְּנֵי הָֽאָדֹן יְהוָֹֽה:
Law forbidding eating a sacrifice with unleavened bread 37
יח לֹֽא־תִזְבַּח עַל־חָמֵץ דַּם־זִבְחִי
38 Law against leaving over a sacrifice until the morning
וְלֹֽא־יָלִין חֵֽלֶב־חַגִּי עַד־בֹּֽקֶר:
39 Law requiring eating firstfruits at the temple
יט רֵאשִׁית בִּכּוּרֵי אַדְמָתְךָ תָּבִיא בֵּית יְהוָֹה אֱלֹהֶיךָ
40 Law against eating an animal and its mother simultaneously
לֹֽא־תְבַשֵּׁל גְּדִי בַּֽחֲלֵב אִמּֽוֹ: פ [ששי]
כ הִנֵּה אָֽנֹכִי שֹׁלֵחַ מַלְאָךְ לְפָנֶיךָ לִשְׁמָרְךָ בַּדָּרֶךְ וְלַֽהֲבִיאֲךָ אֶל־הַמָּקוֹם אֲשֶׁר הֲכִנֹֽתִי: כא הִשָּׁמֶר מִפָּנָיו וּשְׁמַע בְּקֹלוֹ אַל־תַּמֵּר בּוֹ כִּי לֹא יִשָּׂא לְפִשְׁעֲכֶם כִּי שְׁמִי בְּקִרְבּֽוֹ: כב כִּי אִם־שָׁמוֹעַ תִּשְׁמַע בְּקֹלוֹ וְעָשִׂיתָ כֹּל אֲשֶׁר אֲדַבֵּר וְאָֽיַבְתִּי אֶת־אֹיְבֶיךָ וְצַרְתִּי אֶת־צֹֽרְרֶֽיךָ: כג כִּֽי־יֵלֵךְ מַלְאָכִי לְפָנֶיךָ וֶֽהֱבִֽיאֲךָ אֶל־הָֽאֱמֹרִי וְהַחִתִּי וְהַפְּרִזִּי וְהַֽכְּנַֽעֲנִי הַֽחִוִּי וְהַיְבוּסִי וְהִכְחַדְתִּֽיו:
Law against prostration to canaanite gods 41
כד לֹֽא־תִשְׁתַּֽחֲוֶה לֵאלֹֽהֵיהֶם וְלֹא תָֽעָבְדֵם
42 Law against immitating canaanite religious practices
וְלֹא תַֽעֲשֶׂה כְּמַֽעֲשֵׂיהֶם כִּי הָרֵס תְּהָרְסֵם וְשַׁבֵּר תְּשַׁבֵּר מַצֵּבֹֽתֵיהֶֽם:
כה וַֽעֲבַדְתֶּם אֵת יְהוָֹה אֱלֹֽהֵיכֶם וּבֵרַךְ אֶֽת־לַחְמְךָ וְאֶת־מֵימֶיךָ וַֽהֲסִרֹתִי מַֽחֲלָה מִקִּרְבֶּֽךָ: ס [שביעי] כו לֹא תִֽהְיֶה מְשַׁכֵּלָה וַֽעֲקָרָה בְּאַרְצֶךָ אֶת־מִסְפַּר יָמֶיךָ אֲמַלֵּֽא: כז אֶת־אֵֽימָתִי אֲשַׁלַּח לְפָנֶיךָ וְהַמֹּתִי אֶת־כָּל־הָעָם אֲשֶׁר תָּבֹא בָּהֶם וְנָֽתַתִּי אֶת־כָּל־אֹֽיְבֶיךָ אֵלֶיךָ עֹֽרֶף: כח וְשָֽׁלַחְתִּי אֶת־הַצִּרְעָה לְפָנֶיךָ וְגֵֽרְשָׁה אֶת־הַֽחִוִּי אֶת־הַֽכְּנַֽעֲנִי וְאֶת־הַֽחִתִּי מִלְּפָנֶֽיךָ: כט לֹא אֲגָֽרְשֶׁנּוּ מִפָּנֶיךָ בְּשָׁנָה אֶחָת פֶּן־תִּֽהְיֶה הָאָרֶץ שְׁמָמָה וְרַבָּה עָלֶיךָ חַיַּת הַשָּׂדֶֽה: ל מְעַט מְעַט אֲגָֽרְשֶׁנּוּ מִפָּנֶיךָ עַד אֲשֶׁר תִּפְרֶה וְנָֽחַלְתָּ אֶת־הָאָֽרֶץ: לא וְשַׁתִּי אֶת־גְּבֻֽלְךָ מִיַּם־סוּף וְעַד־יָם פְּלִשְׁתִּים וּמִמִּדְבָּר עַד־הַנָּהָר כִּי אֶתֵּן בְּיֶדְכֶם אֵת יֹֽשְׁבֵי הָאָרֶץ וְגֵֽרַשְׁתָּמוֹ מִפָּנֶֽיךָ: לב לֹֽא־תִכְרֹת לָהֶם וְלֵאלֹֽהֵיהֶם בְּרִֽית: לג לֹא יֵֽשְׁבוּ בְּאַרְצְךָ פֶּן־יַֽחֲטִיאוּ אֹֽתְךָ לִי כִּי תַֽעֲבֹד אֶת־אֱלֹהֵיהֶם כִּי־יִֽהְיֶה לְךָ לְמוֹקֵֽשׁ: פ
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Saturday, November 12, 2005
Stop 0 - God’s revelation to Moses
E account - Moses is tending Yethrau, his father-in-law’s sheep and he arrives at the mountain of God, Choreb.
God calls to him from the bush and says "Moses, Moses... I am the god of your father, the god of Abraham, the god of Isaac and the god of Jacob. Moses hides his face because he is afraid to stare at God.
God says "the cry of the children of Israel has come to me and I am now sending you to Paraoh to extract the children of Israel from Egypt".
Moses says "Who am I that I shall go to Paraoh and extract the children of Israel from Egypt?" God says "for I will be with you and this will be your sign that I have sent you: After you extract the people from Egypt, you shall worship God on this mountain".
Moses says "behold, I will come to the children of Israel and I will say to them ‘the god of your forefathers has sent me to you’ and they will ask me ‘what is his name?’, what shall I say to them?
God says to Moses "ahyehAsherAhyeh (=I will be what I shall be) is my name; thus shall you say to the children of Israel ‘I shall be’ has sent me to you. Thus shall you say to the children of Israel ‘Yahweh the god of your fathers, the god of abraham, the god of isaac and the god of Jacob has sent me to you’. This is my name forever and this is my remembrance for generations".
J account - Moses sees the angel of God in a firy flame from within the bush and turns towards the bush to see why the fire does not consume the bush.
God says "Do not come any closer; remove your sandals from your feet for the place on which you are standing is holy ground".
God says " I have seen the pain of my people in Egypt and I have heard their cry. I will now descend to rescue him from Egypt and bring him up from that land to a good expansive land, a land that flows milk and honey, the place of the Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, Perizites, Hivites and Jebusites. Go and assemble the elders of Israel and say to them...
Moses says "But they will not believe me and they will not listen to my voice, for they will say yhwh has not revealed himself to you.
God then shows Moses three signs to perform before the elders in order to prove his mission.
1. Moses’ staff is thrown to the ground and turned into a snake. When the tail is grasped, the snake turns into a staff again.
2. Hand is placed in bosom and becomes leprous and then healed when placed in the bosom again.
3. Water from the river is poured unto the dry land and is turned into blood.
P Account - God reveals himself to Moses and says "I am Yahweh; I have revealed myself to to the forefathers in the name ‘Shadai’ (=breasts/fertility) and I have not notified them of my Yahweh name... and so say to the children of Israel ‘I am yahweh and I will extract you from being under the hard work of Egypt and I will rescue you from their servitude and I will redeem you with a bent arm and big judgments. I will take you to be my people (you shall serve me) and I will be your God and you will know that I am Yahweh your god who is extracting you from the hard work of Egypt. I will bring you to the land which I swore to give to the patriarchs; I will give it to you as an inheritance".
Moses relates the word of God to the Israelites but the Israelites refuse to believe him because the work is so hard.
God asks Moses to go to Paraoh and ask him to release the Israelites from his land but Moses says "Behold, the children of Israel have refused to listen to me and how will Paraoh listen to me being that I have uncircumcised lips?"
God replies "Look, you will be like God to Paraoh and Aaron will be your messenger. You will speak to Aaron whatever I command you and Aaron will speak to Paraoh..."
God then tells Moses to perform several "wonders" if Paraoh asks for them.
1. Aaron drops his staff before Paraoh and it turns into a crocodile.
2. Aaron bends his staff on the rivers and lakes of egypt and the water turns into blood.
3. Aaron bends his staff on the rivers of Egypt and frogs emerge and cover the entire country.
4. Aaron bends his staff and smites the dirt of the land and the dirt turns into lice, which spread over the entire country and afflict both humans and animals
5. Moses and Aaron take soot from a furnace and sprinkle it towards the heaven. The dust spreads over the entire country and causes humans and animals to develop boils/bubbles.
Are the Egyptian Horoscopist able to replicate Aaron’s wonders?
1. Yes, but Aaron’s crocodile swallows the horoscopists’ crocodiles thus demonstrating the superiority of yahweh.
2. Yes, Egyptian horoscopists are able to perform the same wonder and so the supremity of Yahweh over the Egyptian gods is not demonstrated.
3. Yes. Same as 2.
4. No! Horoscopists tried to replicate Aaron’s wonder and produce lice from dirt but they were unsuccessful. They said "it is the finger of Yahweh" meaning that since they are unable to do it in the name of the Egyptian gods, it must be attributed to the Hebrew god Yahweh.
5. Not stated. The horoscopists were unable to stand in front of Moses because of the bubbles and perhaps this is why they never had a chance to try to replicate this wonder.
God says "Paraoh will not listen to you, so that I will multiply my wonders in the land of Egypt".
NOTE: In J there are three signs. In E there is one sign. In P there is no sign before the Hebrews but there are five wonders performed before Paraoh. The wonders act primarilly to prove the superiority of Yahweh and thereby convince Paraoh to release the Hebrews. The wonders do cause some inconvenience to the Egyptians and seem to suggest that Yahweh is punishing the Egyptians for enslaving his people, the Hebrews. However, the contrast between Aaron’s act and that of the horoscopist suggests that the primary purpose of the these wonders was to demonstrate the superiority of Yahweh. They should certainly not be conidered "plauges" according to P. In fact, the term "plauge" (negah) is never mentioned by P in this account.
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Stop 1 - Departure from Egypt:
J account - Israelites slaughter the Pesach and firstborn Egyptians are smitten at midnight and paraoh sends his servants to moses (on the following day) to instruct the israelites that they can go.
E account - Firstborn Egyptians are smitten at midnight. Moses and Aaron are called before paraoh at night and told to leave immediately. The israelites leave immediately; their dough does not have a chance to become Chametz.
P account -
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Stop 1B - the route
E account - God does not lead the Israelites in the way of the land of the Phillistines, which is the close route. Instead, he leads them in the way of the wilderness, the Sea of reeds. This is done in order to avoid having to fight a war with the tough philistines.
Israelites complain to Moses "are there no graves in Egypt that you have taken us to die in the wilderness (due to lack of food and water)?"
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stop 2 - yhwh goes before the Israelites
J account - yhwh is going before the Israelites with a pillar of cloud during the day to show them the way and a pillar of fire (in the cloud perhaps?) during the night to provide lighting
E account - An angel of God goes before the Israelites
P account - ????
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stop 3 - the crossing of the Sea of Reeds
J account - yhwh is fighting for the Israelites through the pillar of cloud and fire. He establishes a strong eastern wind all night which causes the water to dry out (=freeze) so that Israel can pass. He melts the sea water after the Israelites pass through and the Egyptians are running towards a melted sea and are "shook up" and drowned.
E account - The "angel of God" who usually goes before the Israelites is now going behind them (to separate them from the Egyptians). The angel of God removes the wheel of the egyptian chariots and the egyptians thus get stuck in the water.
P Account - As the Egyptians pursue the Israelites and get closer, the Israelites cry out to yahweh. Following God’s order, Moses bends his staff on the ocean water and causes it to split and form two walls. The Israelites pass through on the dry land of the ocean floor and the Egyptians follow but when Moses bends his staff again upon the water, the water melts and the Egyptians who are still in the water are sunk.
NOTE: In JE yhwh’s presence is embodied in the pillar of cloud and fire. Yhwh fights the Egyptians through this presence like a king fighting to protect his people. However, no outright miracle is performed. Personal attributes are ascribed to this god. In P there is no physical presence of God but the manner in which the sea "splits" and forms two walls is absolutely miraculous and is controlled by the staff of Moses.
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stop 3B - The Song of the Sea
J account - Moses and the sons of Israel sing a lengthy poem to yhwh.
E account - Miriam, the sister of Aaron leads the women in singing a short song to yhwh. The women are playing tambourines and dancing.
P account - no song is mentioned
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stop 4 - No water in the Wilderness (Wilderness of Marah, MasaWumeribah/Choreb, Qadesh/ Tzin/Meribath Qadesh)
J account - (Wilderness of Marah) The Israelites go three days in the wilderness without water. The israelites complain. They finally arrive at a site that has bitter water. Moses, upon instruction from Yhwh, throws a piece of wood into the water and the water becomes sweet. The site is named "marah" (=bitter)
E Account - (MasaWumeribah) The israelites skirmish with Moses and ask him to provide water. Moses says "Why do you skirmigh with me and why are you probing Yhwh (whether Yhwh is in their midst)? Choreb is mentioned in the account. It is also possible that this occured in Rephidim since the E event immediately following this is the Amalekite Rephidim event.
The israelites complain "Why have you brought us up from Egypt to cause us to die here in thrist?" Upon instruction from Yhwh, Moses passes before the Israelites and strikes a stone in "Choreb" before the elders of Israel and water comes forth from the stone. The site is called "MasaWumeribah" (=test and skirmish).
P account - (Qadesh/ Wilderness of Tzin) According to P this even occurs at the very end of the 40-year Israelite journey in the wilderness at the site where Miriam died. There was no water for the congregation and the people quarelled with Moses and said "we wish we had died along with our brothers before yhwh. Why have you brought the congregation of yhwh to this wilderness to die here, us and our animals? Why have you brought us up from Egypt to bring us to this bad place? It is not a place of seed, figs, wine and pomegrandes, and there is no water to drink!"
Moses, following god’s orders assembles the congregation to the face of the boulder and says "listen now, you rebels: shall we bring forth water from this boulder?" Moses then smites the boulder twice with his staff and lots of water emerges.
God says to Moses and Aaron "Because you did not have faith in me, to make me holy in the eyes of the children of Israel, therefore you shall not bring the congregation to the land that I have given them". It seems that Moses was expected to talk to the boulder to produce water and thereby demonstrated the greatness and holiness of god and not produce the water by smiting it which would not seem so supernatural. The place is called MeiMeribah (= water of the quarrel) or MeribathQadesh (= quarrel of Qadesh).
NOTE: In J, there is almost no miracle involved in this event. It seems that God is showing Moses a certain kind of wood that sweetens bitter water naturally, thus allowing the israelites to quench their thirst through the available water. In E, water is produced miraculously by hitting the stone. In P, Moses is expected to go even further and not even hit the stone, just talk to it. He doesn’t trust god that this will work and he is serverely punished. P also explains why the place is called "qadesh"; it is because god was sanctified through the "water of the quarrel".
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Stop 5 - Food in the wilderness (Choreb?)
JE account - Yhwh says "I will cause bread to rain from heaven and the people shall depart from the camp and gather the bread daily (from around the camp), so that I may probe the people as to whether they will follow my teaching or not. On the sixth day, there will be double portions and they shall prepare what they bring (for the following day, Sabbath)".
They gathered the bread daily and when the sun warmed it, the bread melted. (I believe that this verse belongs to JE).
P Account - (Wilderness of Sin between ailim and Sinai on the fifteenth day of the second month of the Exodus from Egypt). The congregation complains to Moses and Aaron and say "We wish we died at the hands of yhwh (a natural disater) in the land of Egypt when we were sitting at the pot of meat and eating bread until full. Why bring us to this wilderness to kill us in hunger?
Moses says to the Israelites to come close before yhwh because he has heard their complaint and will provide meat in the evening and bread in the morning. The glory of yhwh was then revealed in a cloud and yhwh promised Moses as such.
In the evening quails came up and covered the camp and in the morning, after the dew disappeared, the Israelites noticed a small, round thing like drops of ice on the ground. Moses explained that this is the bread that yhwh has given them to eat and he laid forth the rules, namely, they must not take more than what they can eat for that day (= one omer per person).
Some people disobeyed Moses and left over the bread until the morning. The bread accumulated worms and produced a foul smell. Moses was angry at those people.
On the sixth day, some men collected double portions. The chieftains of the community told Moses but this time Moses agreed and said "That (collecting double portions on friday) is what yhwh spoke! Tomorrow is a holy Sabbath to yhwh. What has to be cooked and baked (for tomorrow) shall be done now and the remainder (whatever cannot be eaten today) you shall keep until the morning".
Once again, some people did not listen to Moses and went out on Sabbath to look for the "man" bread but did not find any. Yhwh was angry.
NOTE: In the JE account there is no meat. There is also no mention of any complaint on the part of the people that prompted the provision of "man". There is no direct mention in JE of the two incidents in which some people did not follow god’s "command and teaching": they left over until the morning and they went out on the Sabbath. However, the mention of a "test whether they will follow my teaching" in the JE account may allude to theese incidents which demonstrated that the people had failed the test. In JE, the bread melts at noon while in P the bread becomes rotten if left overnight (which implies that it does not melt at noon).
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Stop 6 - Amalek fights Israel (Rephidim, Negebh/mountain)
P account - **J account according to elliott** (occurs after sending of the spies in the region adjacent to the negebh/mountain) The Amalakite and Canaanite dwell in the mountain (which the spies used to enter the land?). Upon hearing yhwh’s decree following Israel’s refusal to conquer canaan due to the report of the spies, the people are very saddened and they changed their mind and said "we are ready, let us go up to the place that god said for we have sinned". The following morning they went up the mountain to fight the Amalekites and Canaanites against moses’ advice and they are defeated and pursued until "charmah" (=destruction).
E account - (occurs before the sending of spies in Rephidim) Amalek attacks Israel. Moses ascends to the top of the mountain and lifts up his hand holding the staff of god. This causes the Amaelkites to lose. Moses writes in the book of memories "Yhwh will erase the male Amalekites from underneath the heaven". Moses builds an altar named "YahwehNesi" (=yhwh is my flagstaff) and offers sacrifices to yhwh (assumed).
NOTE: The origin of the name charmah differs according to the two accounts. In P, the origin is as described above but in J, the canaanite king of Arad fights the Israelites in the Negebh and the Israelites eventually defeat him and destroy his cities and call the place charmah. (This is why I disagree with Elliott on the source of this account) In P, there is no mention of any battle with the Amalekites at Rephidim (which is identified as the place where the israelites camped before Sinai Ex 19:2). It is noteworthy that the two events of Amalek and Meribah seem to be connected chronologically in both accounts. According to E Amalek occured in Rephidim and Meribah occured in Choreb immediately afterwards. Even though the story of Meribah is told before Amalek in Ex chapter 17, it must have occured first, because we know from P that the Israelites went from Rephidim to Choreb/Sinai (Ex 19:2). According to P Amalek occured in Qadesh/Paran (Num 14:40) and Meribah occured in Qadesh/Tzin (Num 20) immediately afterwards. There seems to have been a tradition connecting the two events.
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stop 7 - Moses’ Father-in-law comes to the wilderness (the mountain of God in Choreb, Sinai)
J account - (at mount Sinai) Chabab the son of Reuel the Midianite visits Moses in the wilderness (to return his wife and kids?) and apparently spends some time there (assumed) and acts as the "eyes" of Israel. Moses asks him to go along with his people and that he will be rewarded once Israel conquers the land but Chabab refuses and returns to his land in Midian. Exodus 34.
E account - (at the mountain of God) Yethrau, a midianite priest brings moses’ wife and two kids to Moses who is camped at the mountain of God in the wilderness (of Choreb). Yethrau hears all that Yhwh had done for Israel and brings burnt offerings and peace offerings to God. Aaron and the elders of Israel join Yethrau for the meal held in front of God.
Moses Judges the people all day. When people come to "query god", Moses judges between the two litigants and notifies them the ordinances and teachings of God. Yethrau advises moses to function as an intermediary between god and the people ONLY, notifying them the ordinances and teachings of God but delegating regular judgements to "people of strength who fear god, men of truth who hate unjust gain". Yethrau returns to his land (Midian).
NOTE: It is almost certain that the E account occurs after Moses had issued the various laws contained in Parashath Mishpatim (Exodus 21-24) because in it Moses says "and I make them know the statutes of God, and his laws". Furthermore, Yethrau is said to have come to the mountain of God and "mountain of god" is associated with the issue of the decalog in the E account (Ex 19:2-3 and Ex 24:13).
According to E, then, the order of things is as follows: departure from Egypt, crossing of the red sea, issue of statutes and judgements (in Marah?), provision of bread from heaven, Meribah, Amalek in Rephidim, Revelation at Mountain of God (Choreb), Yethrau at Mountain of God, Golden calf, tent of meeting, Taberah (burning), provison of quail at Qebroth Hatawah, snowwhite Miriam at Chatseroth, report of the spies in the wilderness of Paran (qadesh), Nehushtan, Bele’am.
According to J, the order is as follows: departure from Egypt, crossing of the red sea, Marah/Meribah, provision of bread from heaven, revelation at mount Sinai & issue of the Decalog, Chabab (Yethrau) at Sinai, report of the spies, Dathan and Abiram, circumvension of Edom, defeat of canaanites at Charmah, Defeat of Amorites and Bashanites, Heresy of Peor, Appointment of Joshua.
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stop 8 - The covenant (Choreb, Sinai)
E account (at the mountain of god, in Choreb?) - Israel camps against the mountain. Moses ascends the mountain of God and god proposes a covenant with Israel "You shall harken my voice and keep my covenant and in return I will choose you from amongst all the nations to be my precious jewel. You will be a kingdom of priests and a holy nation". The elders of Israel agree and Moses notifies Yhwh.
Yhwh says "I will come (from heaven) to you in a thick cloud so that the people hear me speak to you and thus trust you forever". Moses notifies the people.
There was a loud sound of the trumpet (from the mountain of God) and the people were frightened. Moses led the people from the camp to the bottom of the mountain. He spoke to God and God answered him with a sound (emerging from the thick cloud). The scripture does not state what the topic of conversation was.
The people saw the lightning and smoking mounatin and heard the thunder and the sound of the trumpet and trembled and asked moses that God no longer speak to them (=to moses in front of them) lest they die. Moses explains that god came to lay forth the commandments and "test" israel whether they will keep them AND so that the fear of god will be on the Israelite faces and they will not sin. Nonetheless, moses agrees that God will no longer speak to them and god henceforth spoke only to moses from the thick cloud and the people stood from afar.
God speaks words and judgements to Moses (alone) on the mountain and Moses then relates those items to the people. The people say "we will do all the words that yahweh has said". The following day, Moses builds an altar and slaughters oxen as peace offerings to yhwh. Moses writes down the words of yhwh and reads the book of the covenant in the ears of the people; the people reply "we will do and listen to all that yhwh has said". Moses sprinkles half the blood on the people and half the blood on the altar and says "behold, this is the blood of the covenant that yhwh has made with you over all these words".
Moses, Aaron, the priests and the elders of Israel ascend the mountain but only Moses is allowed to go to the top. The others protrate, see god and "envision" God from afar; they eat and drink and then descend. Moses and his servant Joshua alone then ascend the mountain of God while Aaron and Chur remain with the people to judge them. God fashions two tablets of stone and engraves the law and the Commandment on them (both sides) over the course of 40 days and hands it to Moses. However, when Moses descends the mountain and sees the calf and the dancing, he shatters the tablets at the bottom of the mountain. It seems inappropriate to present the tablets of the law to a sinful people.
J account - (at mount Sinai) Moses says to the people to wash their clothes, abstain from sex and prepare for the third day on which yhwh will descend unto mount Sinai for all to see. Nobody may ascend the mountain until the yobel trumpet sounds. On the third day, in the morning there was thunder and lightning, a heavy cloud on the mountain, a loud sound of the trumpet and Mount Sinai was full of smoke because yhwh had descended unto it in a fire.
Yhwh calls Moses to the top of the mountain and instructs him to warn the people against ascending the mountain but moses says that he has already done so. Yhwh then says "descend and come back up with Aaron and the priests but the people shall not break through to come up lest yhwh will break forth among them". Moses descends to the people and tells them.
Finally, Moses (along with the preists) ascends to Mount Sinai (in the morning, still) and takes along two stone tablets. Yhwh descends unto the mountain in a cloud and stands alongside moses (for all to see). Moses calls in the name of yhwh and yhwh passes by and calls out "yhwh is a merciful and gracious God, slow to anger, and abundant in lovingkindness and truth, keeping lovingkindness for thousands, forgiving iniquity, disobedience and sin; but he will by no means clear the guilty completely, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children, and on the children`s children, on the third and on the fourth generation."
Yhwh says "Behold, I make a covenant: before all your people I will do marvels, such as have not been worked in all the earth, nor in any nation; and all the people among which you are, shall see the work of Yahweh that he does with you, for he is fearful. In return, you shall keep whatever I command you today..." and Yhwh goes on issuing to Moses the ten articles of the covenant over the course of 40 days during which Moses did not eat or drink. Moses writes the ten articles of the covenant on the two stone tablets he had brought with him.
P Account - For six days a cloud covered mount Sinai and the glory of god manifested in the form of a consuming fire at the top of the mountain was visible to all the children of Israel. On the seventh day, yahweh called unto Moses from the cloud and Moses ascended the mountain and came into the cloud. God first relates the decalog directly to the people and then Moses spends some time on the mountain (probably 40 days) while God tells him all the laws of the tabernacle, incense and vestments (Chap. 25-28 and parts of 30) as well as ritual law (Chap. 29 and parts of 30) and lastly the law of Sabbath (Ex 31:12). When finished, God writes down the laws on "two stone tablets of the testimony" and gives them to Moses.
Moses descends the mountain with the two tablets of the testimony in his hands but he is not aware that the skin of his face had become shiny (burnt?) while speaking with yahweh. Aaron and the chieftains are afraid to approach Moses but when Moses calls them they return to him and Moses relates to them all that yahweh had spoken to him on Mount Sinai. When Moses is done delivering the sermon, he places a mask on his face so that people are not afarid to come close to him. He keeps the mask ONLY when not communicating with God or delivering Fod’s word to the people. It seems that the reason he does not don the mask while delivering his sermon is so that the people see his chiny face and learn to respect him. Once done with the sermon, he dons the mask so that ordinary people are not afraid to approach him.
NOTE: In JE the revelation at Sinai is depicted as an encounter between God and Moses, NOT a revelation to the general crowd. In J, the covenant proposal and the decalog is spoken to Moses while everyone is watching. This seems to confirm that Moses is indeed the messenger of God. However, God never communicates directly with the people. The language of Ex 34:10 clearly shows that God is speaking to Moses only. In E the purpose of the revelation is to establish the people’s trust in Moses as they witness God talking with Moses (Ex 19:9). Again, god is talking to Moses only, relating to him not only the decalog but the various statutes and judgements contained in Parashath Mishpatim (Ex 20:19-23:33). Only in P is the Sinai revelation depicted as a message from God directly to the people.
Moreover, in E, the decalog does not exist as a distinct entity altogether. Ex 23:12-24 is not separated from the rest of the laws in any way. They are just part of the general law code issued to Moses on the mountain of God which was later written down and read before the people (Ex 24:4-7). In J, there are no laws other than the Decalog (Ex 34:10-25). In essence, the declog is all the law the Israelites were ever given. Only in P is there a major distinction between the decalog (Ex 20:2-14) and the rest of the law which was given to Moses piecemeal at the two cherubs (Ex 25:22) over the course of Israel’s journey in the wilderness. How do I know that it wasn’t all given at once? Ex 34:34-35 describes a routine, not a one-time incident. In addition, Ex 35:1 describes how Moses related to Israel the first batch of laws about the Tabernacle and its ritual and Sabbath. No other laws are told to Moses in the preceding chapters and no other laws are related by Moses to the people in the ensuing chapters.
In J, the theme of three is commonplace: Israel goes three days in Marah without water (Ex 15:22), Israel prepares for the revelation at Sinai for the third day (Ex 19:10-11). In E, no preparation is mentioned. In P it is a six day preparation (Ex 24:16).
Who writes the code onto the tablets?
In J it is Moses who sculpts the tablets and it is Moses who then writes the decalog onto the tablets over the course of 40 days and gives them to Israel Ex 34:27-28). The tablets are never broken or replaced in J! In E it is God who creates the tablets and it is god who writes the "law and the commandment" on them (Ex 24:12). This seems to suggest that the entire covenant code (Ex 21:1-23:19) is written down, which is what we would expect since in E there is no distinction between the declog and the rest of the covenant code. These tablets are then broken by Moses in reaction to the Golden calf sin and they are never replaced! The story of a new set of tablets (Ex 34:1) seems to be RJE (redactor of JE) material in an attempt to find a niche for the J Sinai revelation story. In P, they are called "tablets of testimony", they are made of stone and are written by the finger of god (Ex 31:18). They are kept in a special gold-plated ark, the "ark of the testimony", which assumes major significance to the Israelites as a sign of yahweh’s presence. This ark is mentioned in J too but there it is called "ark of the covenant" and it does not state explicitly that the tablets were kept there (Ex 10:33-35).
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The golden calf episode
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stop 9 - The report of the Spies (Qadesh?)
J account - Moses sent spies to the land they intended to conquer. They visited the following:
* Amalekites who reside in the negebh, southern, desert region of palastine.
* Hittite, Jebusite and Amorites who reside in the mountain.
* Canaanites who reside alongside the ocean and alongside the Jordan.
They brough back some fruit, which looked good but the spies claimed that the people are too strong. Caleb, was the only spy who disagreed and said that the people are conquerable. And so the people wept and said "let us appoint a leader and return to Egypt".
Yhwh said to Moses "Until when will this people vex me and not have faith in me, in all the signs that I have performed in his midst?" Yhwh proposed to eradicate the Israelite people and create a new, more faithful, nation out of moses but moses pleaded with yhwh not do so and to forgive the people’s iniquity. Yhwh said that he will forgive; however, the generation that saw the glory of yhwh and his "signs" in Egypt and the wilderness but refused to harken the voice of yhwh, will not see the land, except for Caleb.
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stop 10 - The rebellion against Moses by Dathan and Abiram (Qadesh?)
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Stop 11 - Conquering the Transjordan Land of Sichon and Og (Amorites and Bashanites)
J account - The Israelites arrive at Qadesh at the border of Edom and ask permission from the edomites to pass their land. The Edomites refuse and the Israelites turned away from Edom (encircling the land instead).
The canaanite king of Arad feels threatened and attacks Israel. After initial success, he is eventually repelled and defeated. Israel destroys Arad and some of the neighboring canaanite cities and calls the place "charma". They apparently have no interest in settling the "negebh" desert lands and so they move east to go around Edom and then north with the intention of conquering some land in the transjordan north of Edom.
Israel passes the brook of Zered and enters Moabite territory and then arrives at the brook of Arnon. They request permission from Sichon the Amorite king of Cheshbon to pass through his land. Sichon refuses and gathers his entire people to fight the Israelites at "yahtza". The Israelites are victorious and inherit the land from the brook of Arnon in the south until the Yabok river to the north and the Ammonite border to the east.
The israelites then pass the Yabok river and ascend the way of the "bashan". Og the king of the Bashan and his entire people go out against them and fight them in "adrai". Once the again the israelites are victorious and they inherit his land.
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E account - Moses is tending Yethrau, his father-in-law’s sheep and he arrives at the mountain of God, Choreb.
God calls to him from the bush and says "Moses, Moses... I am the god of your father, the god of Abraham, the god of Isaac and the god of Jacob. Moses hides his face because he is afraid to stare at God.
God says "the cry of the children of Israel has come to me and I am now sending you to Paraoh to extract the children of Israel from Egypt".
Moses says "Who am I that I shall go to Paraoh and extract the children of Israel from Egypt?" God says "for I will be with you and this will be your sign that I have sent you: After you extract the people from Egypt, you shall worship God on this mountain".
Moses says "behold, I will come to the children of Israel and I will say to them ‘the god of your forefathers has sent me to you’ and they will ask me ‘what is his name?’, what shall I say to them?
God says to Moses "ahyehAsherAhyeh (=I will be what I shall be) is my name; thus shall you say to the children of Israel ‘I shall be’ has sent me to you. Thus shall you say to the children of Israel ‘Yahweh the god of your fathers, the god of abraham, the god of isaac and the god of Jacob has sent me to you’. This is my name forever and this is my remembrance for generations".
J account - Moses sees the angel of God in a firy flame from within the bush and turns towards the bush to see why the fire does not consume the bush.
God says "Do not come any closer; remove your sandals from your feet for the place on which you are standing is holy ground".
God says " I have seen the pain of my people in Egypt and I have heard their cry. I will now descend to rescue him from Egypt and bring him up from that land to a good expansive land, a land that flows milk and honey, the place of the Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, Perizites, Hivites and Jebusites. Go and assemble the elders of Israel and say to them...
Moses says "But they will not believe me and they will not listen to my voice, for they will say yhwh has not revealed himself to you.
God then shows Moses three signs to perform before the elders in order to prove his mission.
1. Moses’ staff is thrown to the ground and turned into a snake. When the tail is grasped, the snake turns into a staff again.
2. Hand is placed in bosom and becomes leprous and then healed when placed in the bosom again.
3. Water from the river is poured unto the dry land and is turned into blood.
P Account - God reveals himself to Moses and says "I am Yahweh; I have revealed myself to to the forefathers in the name ‘Shadai’ (=breasts/fertility) and I have not notified them of my Yahweh name... and so say to the children of Israel ‘I am yahweh and I will extract you from being under the hard work of Egypt and I will rescue you from their servitude and I will redeem you with a bent arm and big judgments. I will take you to be my people (you shall serve me) and I will be your God and you will know that I am Yahweh your god who is extracting you from the hard work of Egypt. I will bring you to the land which I swore to give to the patriarchs; I will give it to you as an inheritance".
Moses relates the word of God to the Israelites but the Israelites refuse to believe him because the work is so hard.
God asks Moses to go to Paraoh and ask him to release the Israelites from his land but Moses says "Behold, the children of Israel have refused to listen to me and how will Paraoh listen to me being that I have uncircumcised lips?"
God replies "Look, you will be like God to Paraoh and Aaron will be your messenger. You will speak to Aaron whatever I command you and Aaron will speak to Paraoh..."
God then tells Moses to perform several "wonders" if Paraoh asks for them.
1. Aaron drops his staff before Paraoh and it turns into a crocodile.
2. Aaron bends his staff on the rivers and lakes of egypt and the water turns into blood.
3. Aaron bends his staff on the rivers of Egypt and frogs emerge and cover the entire country.
4. Aaron bends his staff and smites the dirt of the land and the dirt turns into lice, which spread over the entire country and afflict both humans and animals
5. Moses and Aaron take soot from a furnace and sprinkle it towards the heaven. The dust spreads over the entire country and causes humans and animals to develop boils/bubbles.
Are the Egyptian Horoscopist able to replicate Aaron’s wonders?
1. Yes, but Aaron’s crocodile swallows the horoscopists’ crocodiles thus demonstrating the superiority of yahweh.
2. Yes, Egyptian horoscopists are able to perform the same wonder and so the supremity of Yahweh over the Egyptian gods is not demonstrated.
3. Yes. Same as 2.
4. No! Horoscopists tried to replicate Aaron’s wonder and produce lice from dirt but they were unsuccessful. They said "it is the finger of Yahweh" meaning that since they are unable to do it in the name of the Egyptian gods, it must be attributed to the Hebrew god Yahweh.
5. Not stated. The horoscopists were unable to stand in front of Moses because of the bubbles and perhaps this is why they never had a chance to try to replicate this wonder.
God says "Paraoh will not listen to you, so that I will multiply my wonders in the land of Egypt".
NOTE: In J there are three signs. In E there is one sign. In P there is no sign before the Hebrews but there are five wonders performed before Paraoh. The wonders act primarilly to prove the superiority of Yahweh and thereby convince Paraoh to release the Hebrews. The wonders do cause some inconvenience to the Egyptians and seem to suggest that Yahweh is punishing the Egyptians for enslaving his people, the Hebrews. However, the contrast between Aaron’s act and that of the horoscopist suggests that the primary purpose of the these wonders was to demonstrate the superiority of Yahweh. They should certainly not be conidered "plauges" according to P. In fact, the term "plauge" (negah) is never mentioned by P in this account.
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Stop 1 - Departure from Egypt:
J account - Israelites slaughter the Pesach and firstborn Egyptians are smitten at midnight and paraoh sends his servants to moses (on the following day) to instruct the israelites that they can go.
E account - Firstborn Egyptians are smitten at midnight. Moses and Aaron are called before paraoh at night and told to leave immediately. The israelites leave immediately; their dough does not have a chance to become Chametz.
P account -
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Stop 1B - the route
E account - God does not lead the Israelites in the way of the land of the Phillistines, which is the close route. Instead, he leads them in the way of the wilderness, the Sea of reeds. This is done in order to avoid having to fight a war with the tough philistines.
Israelites complain to Moses "are there no graves in Egypt that you have taken us to die in the wilderness (due to lack of food and water)?"
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stop 2 - yhwh goes before the Israelites
J account - yhwh is going before the Israelites with a pillar of cloud during the day to show them the way and a pillar of fire (in the cloud perhaps?) during the night to provide lighting
E account - An angel of God goes before the Israelites
P account - ????
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stop 3 - the crossing of the Sea of Reeds
J account - yhwh is fighting for the Israelites through the pillar of cloud and fire. He establishes a strong eastern wind all night which causes the water to dry out (=freeze) so that Israel can pass. He melts the sea water after the Israelites pass through and the Egyptians are running towards a melted sea and are "shook up" and drowned.
E account - The "angel of God" who usually goes before the Israelites is now going behind them (to separate them from the Egyptians). The angel of God removes the wheel of the egyptian chariots and the egyptians thus get stuck in the water.
P Account - As the Egyptians pursue the Israelites and get closer, the Israelites cry out to yahweh. Following God’s order, Moses bends his staff on the ocean water and causes it to split and form two walls. The Israelites pass through on the dry land of the ocean floor and the Egyptians follow but when Moses bends his staff again upon the water, the water melts and the Egyptians who are still in the water are sunk.
NOTE: In JE yhwh’s presence is embodied in the pillar of cloud and fire. Yhwh fights the Egyptians through this presence like a king fighting to protect his people. However, no outright miracle is performed. Personal attributes are ascribed to this god. In P there is no physical presence of God but the manner in which the sea "splits" and forms two walls is absolutely miraculous and is controlled by the staff of Moses.
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stop 3B - The Song of the Sea
J account - Moses and the sons of Israel sing a lengthy poem to yhwh.
E account - Miriam, the sister of Aaron leads the women in singing a short song to yhwh. The women are playing tambourines and dancing.
P account - no song is mentioned
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stop 4 - No water in the Wilderness (Wilderness of Marah, MasaWumeribah/Choreb, Qadesh/ Tzin/Meribath Qadesh)
J account - (Wilderness of Marah) The Israelites go three days in the wilderness without water. The israelites complain. They finally arrive at a site that has bitter water. Moses, upon instruction from Yhwh, throws a piece of wood into the water and the water becomes sweet. The site is named "marah" (=bitter)
E Account - (MasaWumeribah) The israelites skirmish with Moses and ask him to provide water. Moses says "Why do you skirmigh with me and why are you probing Yhwh (whether Yhwh is in their midst)? Choreb is mentioned in the account. It is also possible that this occured in Rephidim since the E event immediately following this is the Amalekite Rephidim event.
The israelites complain "Why have you brought us up from Egypt to cause us to die here in thrist?" Upon instruction from Yhwh, Moses passes before the Israelites and strikes a stone in "Choreb" before the elders of Israel and water comes forth from the stone. The site is called "MasaWumeribah" (=test and skirmish).
P account - (Qadesh/ Wilderness of Tzin) According to P this even occurs at the very end of the 40-year Israelite journey in the wilderness at the site where Miriam died. There was no water for the congregation and the people quarelled with Moses and said "we wish we had died along with our brothers before yhwh. Why have you brought the congregation of yhwh to this wilderness to die here, us and our animals? Why have you brought us up from Egypt to bring us to this bad place? It is not a place of seed, figs, wine and pomegrandes, and there is no water to drink!"
Moses, following god’s orders assembles the congregation to the face of the boulder and says "listen now, you rebels: shall we bring forth water from this boulder?" Moses then smites the boulder twice with his staff and lots of water emerges.
God says to Moses and Aaron "Because you did not have faith in me, to make me holy in the eyes of the children of Israel, therefore you shall not bring the congregation to the land that I have given them". It seems that Moses was expected to talk to the boulder to produce water and thereby demonstrated the greatness and holiness of god and not produce the water by smiting it which would not seem so supernatural. The place is called MeiMeribah (= water of the quarrel) or MeribathQadesh (= quarrel of Qadesh).
NOTE: In J, there is almost no miracle involved in this event. It seems that God is showing Moses a certain kind of wood that sweetens bitter water naturally, thus allowing the israelites to quench their thirst through the available water. In E, water is produced miraculously by hitting the stone. In P, Moses is expected to go even further and not even hit the stone, just talk to it. He doesn’t trust god that this will work and he is serverely punished. P also explains why the place is called "qadesh"; it is because god was sanctified through the "water of the quarrel".
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Stop 5 - Food in the wilderness (Choreb?)
JE account - Yhwh says "I will cause bread to rain from heaven and the people shall depart from the camp and gather the bread daily (from around the camp), so that I may probe the people as to whether they will follow my teaching or not. On the sixth day, there will be double portions and they shall prepare what they bring (for the following day, Sabbath)".
They gathered the bread daily and when the sun warmed it, the bread melted. (I believe that this verse belongs to JE).
P Account - (Wilderness of Sin between ailim and Sinai on the fifteenth day of the second month of the Exodus from Egypt). The congregation complains to Moses and Aaron and say "We wish we died at the hands of yhwh (a natural disater) in the land of Egypt when we were sitting at the pot of meat and eating bread until full. Why bring us to this wilderness to kill us in hunger?
Moses says to the Israelites to come close before yhwh because he has heard their complaint and will provide meat in the evening and bread in the morning. The glory of yhwh was then revealed in a cloud and yhwh promised Moses as such.
In the evening quails came up and covered the camp and in the morning, after the dew disappeared, the Israelites noticed a small, round thing like drops of ice on the ground. Moses explained that this is the bread that yhwh has given them to eat and he laid forth the rules, namely, they must not take more than what they can eat for that day (= one omer per person).
Some people disobeyed Moses and left over the bread until the morning. The bread accumulated worms and produced a foul smell. Moses was angry at those people.
On the sixth day, some men collected double portions. The chieftains of the community told Moses but this time Moses agreed and said "That (collecting double portions on friday) is what yhwh spoke! Tomorrow is a holy Sabbath to yhwh. What has to be cooked and baked (for tomorrow) shall be done now and the remainder (whatever cannot be eaten today) you shall keep until the morning".
Once again, some people did not listen to Moses and went out on Sabbath to look for the "man" bread but did not find any. Yhwh was angry.
NOTE: In the JE account there is no meat. There is also no mention of any complaint on the part of the people that prompted the provision of "man". There is no direct mention in JE of the two incidents in which some people did not follow god’s "command and teaching": they left over until the morning and they went out on the Sabbath. However, the mention of a "test whether they will follow my teaching" in the JE account may allude to theese incidents which demonstrated that the people had failed the test. In JE, the bread melts at noon while in P the bread becomes rotten if left overnight (which implies that it does not melt at noon).
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Stop 6 - Amalek fights Israel (Rephidim, Negebh/mountain)
P account - **J account according to elliott** (occurs after sending of the spies in the region adjacent to the negebh/mountain) The Amalakite and Canaanite dwell in the mountain (which the spies used to enter the land?). Upon hearing yhwh’s decree following Israel’s refusal to conquer canaan due to the report of the spies, the people are very saddened and they changed their mind and said "we are ready, let us go up to the place that god said for we have sinned". The following morning they went up the mountain to fight the Amalekites and Canaanites against moses’ advice and they are defeated and pursued until "charmah" (=destruction).
E account - (occurs before the sending of spies in Rephidim) Amalek attacks Israel. Moses ascends to the top of the mountain and lifts up his hand holding the staff of god. This causes the Amaelkites to lose. Moses writes in the book of memories "Yhwh will erase the male Amalekites from underneath the heaven". Moses builds an altar named "YahwehNesi" (=yhwh is my flagstaff) and offers sacrifices to yhwh (assumed).
NOTE: The origin of the name charmah differs according to the two accounts. In P, the origin is as described above but in J, the canaanite king of Arad fights the Israelites in the Negebh and the Israelites eventually defeat him and destroy his cities and call the place charmah. (This is why I disagree with Elliott on the source of this account) In P, there is no mention of any battle with the Amalekites at Rephidim (which is identified as the place where the israelites camped before Sinai Ex 19:2). It is noteworthy that the two events of Amalek and Meribah seem to be connected chronologically in both accounts. According to E Amalek occured in Rephidim and Meribah occured in Choreb immediately afterwards. Even though the story of Meribah is told before Amalek in Ex chapter 17, it must have occured first, because we know from P that the Israelites went from Rephidim to Choreb/Sinai (Ex 19:2). According to P Amalek occured in Qadesh/Paran (Num 14:40) and Meribah occured in Qadesh/Tzin (Num 20) immediately afterwards. There seems to have been a tradition connecting the two events.
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stop 7 - Moses’ Father-in-law comes to the wilderness (the mountain of God in Choreb, Sinai)
J account - (at mount Sinai) Chabab the son of Reuel the Midianite visits Moses in the wilderness (to return his wife and kids?) and apparently spends some time there (assumed) and acts as the "eyes" of Israel. Moses asks him to go along with his people and that he will be rewarded once Israel conquers the land but Chabab refuses and returns to his land in Midian. Exodus 34.
E account - (at the mountain of God) Yethrau, a midianite priest brings moses’ wife and two kids to Moses who is camped at the mountain of God in the wilderness (of Choreb). Yethrau hears all that Yhwh had done for Israel and brings burnt offerings and peace offerings to God. Aaron and the elders of Israel join Yethrau for the meal held in front of God.
Moses Judges the people all day. When people come to "query god", Moses judges between the two litigants and notifies them the ordinances and teachings of God. Yethrau advises moses to function as an intermediary between god and the people ONLY, notifying them the ordinances and teachings of God but delegating regular judgements to "people of strength who fear god, men of truth who hate unjust gain". Yethrau returns to his land (Midian).
NOTE: It is almost certain that the E account occurs after Moses had issued the various laws contained in Parashath Mishpatim (Exodus 21-24) because in it Moses says "and I make them know the statutes of God, and his laws". Furthermore, Yethrau is said to have come to the mountain of God and "mountain of god" is associated with the issue of the decalog in the E account (Ex 19:2-3 and Ex 24:13).
According to E, then, the order of things is as follows: departure from Egypt, crossing of the red sea, issue of statutes and judgements (in Marah?), provision of bread from heaven, Meribah, Amalek in Rephidim, Revelation at Mountain of God (Choreb), Yethrau at Mountain of God, Golden calf, tent of meeting, Taberah (burning), provison of quail at Qebroth Hatawah, snowwhite Miriam at Chatseroth, report of the spies in the wilderness of Paran (qadesh), Nehushtan, Bele’am.
According to J, the order is as follows: departure from Egypt, crossing of the red sea, Marah/Meribah, provision of bread from heaven, revelation at mount Sinai & issue of the Decalog, Chabab (Yethrau) at Sinai, report of the spies, Dathan and Abiram, circumvension of Edom, defeat of canaanites at Charmah, Defeat of Amorites and Bashanites, Heresy of Peor, Appointment of Joshua.
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stop 8 - The covenant (Choreb, Sinai)
E account (at the mountain of god, in Choreb?) - Israel camps against the mountain. Moses ascends the mountain of God and god proposes a covenant with Israel "You shall harken my voice and keep my covenant and in return I will choose you from amongst all the nations to be my precious jewel. You will be a kingdom of priests and a holy nation". The elders of Israel agree and Moses notifies Yhwh.
Yhwh says "I will come (from heaven) to you in a thick cloud so that the people hear me speak to you and thus trust you forever". Moses notifies the people.
There was a loud sound of the trumpet (from the mountain of God) and the people were frightened. Moses led the people from the camp to the bottom of the mountain. He spoke to God and God answered him with a sound (emerging from the thick cloud). The scripture does not state what the topic of conversation was.
The people saw the lightning and smoking mounatin and heard the thunder and the sound of the trumpet and trembled and asked moses that God no longer speak to them (=to moses in front of them) lest they die. Moses explains that god came to lay forth the commandments and "test" israel whether they will keep them AND so that the fear of god will be on the Israelite faces and they will not sin. Nonetheless, moses agrees that God will no longer speak to them and god henceforth spoke only to moses from the thick cloud and the people stood from afar.
God speaks words and judgements to Moses (alone) on the mountain and Moses then relates those items to the people. The people say "we will do all the words that yahweh has said". The following day, Moses builds an altar and slaughters oxen as peace offerings to yhwh. Moses writes down the words of yhwh and reads the book of the covenant in the ears of the people; the people reply "we will do and listen to all that yhwh has said". Moses sprinkles half the blood on the people and half the blood on the altar and says "behold, this is the blood of the covenant that yhwh has made with you over all these words".
Moses, Aaron, the priests and the elders of Israel ascend the mountain but only Moses is allowed to go to the top. The others protrate, see god and "envision" God from afar; they eat and drink and then descend. Moses and his servant Joshua alone then ascend the mountain of God while Aaron and Chur remain with the people to judge them. God fashions two tablets of stone and engraves the law and the Commandment on them (both sides) over the course of 40 days and hands it to Moses. However, when Moses descends the mountain and sees the calf and the dancing, he shatters the tablets at the bottom of the mountain. It seems inappropriate to present the tablets of the law to a sinful people.
J account - (at mount Sinai) Moses says to the people to wash their clothes, abstain from sex and prepare for the third day on which yhwh will descend unto mount Sinai for all to see. Nobody may ascend the mountain until the yobel trumpet sounds. On the third day, in the morning there was thunder and lightning, a heavy cloud on the mountain, a loud sound of the trumpet and Mount Sinai was full of smoke because yhwh had descended unto it in a fire.
Yhwh calls Moses to the top of the mountain and instructs him to warn the people against ascending the mountain but moses says that he has already done so. Yhwh then says "descend and come back up with Aaron and the priests but the people shall not break through to come up lest yhwh will break forth among them". Moses descends to the people and tells them.
Finally, Moses (along with the preists) ascends to Mount Sinai (in the morning, still) and takes along two stone tablets. Yhwh descends unto the mountain in a cloud and stands alongside moses (for all to see). Moses calls in the name of yhwh and yhwh passes by and calls out "yhwh is a merciful and gracious God, slow to anger, and abundant in lovingkindness and truth, keeping lovingkindness for thousands, forgiving iniquity, disobedience and sin; but he will by no means clear the guilty completely, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children, and on the children`s children, on the third and on the fourth generation."
Yhwh says "Behold, I make a covenant: before all your people I will do marvels, such as have not been worked in all the earth, nor in any nation; and all the people among which you are, shall see the work of Yahweh that he does with you, for he is fearful. In return, you shall keep whatever I command you today..." and Yhwh goes on issuing to Moses the ten articles of the covenant over the course of 40 days during which Moses did not eat or drink. Moses writes the ten articles of the covenant on the two stone tablets he had brought with him.
P Account - For six days a cloud covered mount Sinai and the glory of god manifested in the form of a consuming fire at the top of the mountain was visible to all the children of Israel. On the seventh day, yahweh called unto Moses from the cloud and Moses ascended the mountain and came into the cloud. God first relates the decalog directly to the people and then Moses spends some time on the mountain (probably 40 days) while God tells him all the laws of the tabernacle, incense and vestments (Chap. 25-28 and parts of 30) as well as ritual law (Chap. 29 and parts of 30) and lastly the law of Sabbath (Ex 31:12). When finished, God writes down the laws on "two stone tablets of the testimony" and gives them to Moses.
Moses descends the mountain with the two tablets of the testimony in his hands but he is not aware that the skin of his face had become shiny (burnt?) while speaking with yahweh. Aaron and the chieftains are afraid to approach Moses but when Moses calls them they return to him and Moses relates to them all that yahweh had spoken to him on Mount Sinai. When Moses is done delivering the sermon, he places a mask on his face so that people are not afarid to come close to him. He keeps the mask ONLY when not communicating with God or delivering Fod’s word to the people. It seems that the reason he does not don the mask while delivering his sermon is so that the people see his chiny face and learn to respect him. Once done with the sermon, he dons the mask so that ordinary people are not afraid to approach him.
NOTE: In JE the revelation at Sinai is depicted as an encounter between God and Moses, NOT a revelation to the general crowd. In J, the covenant proposal and the decalog is spoken to Moses while everyone is watching. This seems to confirm that Moses is indeed the messenger of God. However, God never communicates directly with the people. The language of Ex 34:10 clearly shows that God is speaking to Moses only. In E the purpose of the revelation is to establish the people’s trust in Moses as they witness God talking with Moses (Ex 19:9). Again, god is talking to Moses only, relating to him not only the decalog but the various statutes and judgements contained in Parashath Mishpatim (Ex 20:19-23:33). Only in P is the Sinai revelation depicted as a message from God directly to the people.
Moreover, in E, the decalog does not exist as a distinct entity altogether. Ex 23:12-24 is not separated from the rest of the laws in any way. They are just part of the general law code issued to Moses on the mountain of God which was later written down and read before the people (Ex 24:4-7). In J, there are no laws other than the Decalog (Ex 34:10-25). In essence, the declog is all the law the Israelites were ever given. Only in P is there a major distinction between the decalog (Ex 20:2-14) and the rest of the law which was given to Moses piecemeal at the two cherubs (Ex 25:22) over the course of Israel’s journey in the wilderness. How do I know that it wasn’t all given at once? Ex 34:34-35 describes a routine, not a one-time incident. In addition, Ex 35:1 describes how Moses related to Israel the first batch of laws about the Tabernacle and its ritual and Sabbath. No other laws are told to Moses in the preceding chapters and no other laws are related by Moses to the people in the ensuing chapters.
In J, the theme of three is commonplace: Israel goes three days in Marah without water (Ex 15:22), Israel prepares for the revelation at Sinai for the third day (Ex 19:10-11). In E, no preparation is mentioned. In P it is a six day preparation (Ex 24:16).
Who writes the code onto the tablets?
In J it is Moses who sculpts the tablets and it is Moses who then writes the decalog onto the tablets over the course of 40 days and gives them to Israel Ex 34:27-28). The tablets are never broken or replaced in J! In E it is God who creates the tablets and it is god who writes the "law and the commandment" on them (Ex 24:12). This seems to suggest that the entire covenant code (Ex 21:1-23:19) is written down, which is what we would expect since in E there is no distinction between the declog and the rest of the covenant code. These tablets are then broken by Moses in reaction to the Golden calf sin and they are never replaced! The story of a new set of tablets (Ex 34:1) seems to be RJE (redactor of JE) material in an attempt to find a niche for the J Sinai revelation story. In P, they are called "tablets of testimony", they are made of stone and are written by the finger of god (Ex 31:18). They are kept in a special gold-plated ark, the "ark of the testimony", which assumes major significance to the Israelites as a sign of yahweh’s presence. This ark is mentioned in J too but there it is called "ark of the covenant" and it does not state explicitly that the tablets were kept there (Ex 10:33-35).
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The golden calf episode
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stop 9 - The report of the Spies (Qadesh?)
J account - Moses sent spies to the land they intended to conquer. They visited the following:
* Amalekites who reside in the negebh, southern, desert region of palastine.
* Hittite, Jebusite and Amorites who reside in the mountain.
* Canaanites who reside alongside the ocean and alongside the Jordan.
They brough back some fruit, which looked good but the spies claimed that the people are too strong. Caleb, was the only spy who disagreed and said that the people are conquerable. And so the people wept and said "let us appoint a leader and return to Egypt".
Yhwh said to Moses "Until when will this people vex me and not have faith in me, in all the signs that I have performed in his midst?" Yhwh proposed to eradicate the Israelite people and create a new, more faithful, nation out of moses but moses pleaded with yhwh not do so and to forgive the people’s iniquity. Yhwh said that he will forgive; however, the generation that saw the glory of yhwh and his "signs" in Egypt and the wilderness but refused to harken the voice of yhwh, will not see the land, except for Caleb.
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stop 10 - The rebellion against Moses by Dathan and Abiram (Qadesh?)
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Stop 11 - Conquering the Transjordan Land of Sichon and Og (Amorites and Bashanites)
J account - The Israelites arrive at Qadesh at the border of Edom and ask permission from the edomites to pass their land. The Edomites refuse and the Israelites turned away from Edom (encircling the land instead).
The canaanite king of Arad feels threatened and attacks Israel. After initial success, he is eventually repelled and defeated. Israel destroys Arad and some of the neighboring canaanite cities and calls the place "charma". They apparently have no interest in settling the "negebh" desert lands and so they move east to go around Edom and then north with the intention of conquering some land in the transjordan north of Edom.
Israel passes the brook of Zered and enters Moabite territory and then arrives at the brook of Arnon. They request permission from Sichon the Amorite king of Cheshbon to pass through his land. Sichon refuses and gathers his entire people to fight the Israelites at "yahtza". The Israelites are victorious and inherit the land from the brook of Arnon in the south until the Yabok river to the north and the Ammonite border to the east.
The israelites then pass the Yabok river and ascend the way of the "bashan". Og the king of the Bashan and his entire people go out against them and fight them in "adrai". Once the again the israelites are victorious and they inherit his land.
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